Karl Popper - Logic of scientific discovery

Question 1

Empirical Science

Answer 1

The study of phenomena through observation and experimentation

Systems of theories concerned with studying the natural world through observation and experimentation

Question 2

Induction

Answer 2

The process of reasoning from specific cases to general principles

Question 3

Principle of Induction

Answer 3

A principle attempting to justify induction by basing it on experience, but ultimately leading to logical problems such as infinite regress

Question 4

Singular Statements

Answer 4

Statements concerning specific observations or experiments

Question 5

Universal Statements

Answer 5

Statements representing hypotheses or theories

Generalizing results from the singular statements

Question 6

Deductive Method

Answer 6

A method of testing theories through logical comparison of conclusions, investigation of the logical form of the theory, and comparison with other theories

Question 7

Falsification

Answer 7

The process of disproving a theory by showing that its predictions are contradicted by empirical observations

Question 8

Problem of Demarcation

Answer 8

The challenge of distinguishing empirical sciences from metaphysical sciences

Question 9

Positivism

Answer 9

The belief that knowledge is based on observable facts and their relationships

Question 10

Experience as a Method

Answer 10

Utilizing empirical evidence as the basis for understanding the world

Question 11

Falsifiability as a Criterion of Demarcation

Answer 11

The requirement that scientific statements must be potentially falsifiable through empirical testing

Question 12

The Problem of the ‘Empirical Basis’

Answer 12

Ensuring that scientific claims are grounded in observable evidence rather than unfalsifiable assertions

Question 13

Scientific Objectivity and Subjective Conviction

Answer 13

The distinction between the objective testability of scientific statements and the subjective beliefs or convictions of individuals

Question 14

Ad Infinitum

Answer 14

A Latin term meaning “to infinity” or “endlessly,” indicating a process that continues indefinitely.

Cannot physically be tested forever is a problem, but every theory should only be capable of being tested

Question 15

Deductive Testing

Answer 15

The process of proposing a theory, deducing specific conclusions from it, and then testing those conclusions both logically (for consistency) and empirically (for real-world reflection)

Question 16

Corroboration and Falsification

Answer 16

Outcomes of deductive testing where a theory can be either supported (corroborated) or disproven (falsified) based on empirical evidence

Question 17

Logic of Scientific Knowledge

Answer 17

Describes the structure and function of theories within the realm of scientific inquiry

Question 18

Scientific Theories

Answer 18

Universal statements that propose explanations or laws governing natural phenomena

Question 19

Causality

Answer 19

The relationship between cause and effect, often explored through scientific investigation

Question 20

Tautological

Answer 20

Using redundant expressions that convey the same meaning unnecessarily

In logic: Something is tautological if it is true in every possible interpretation

Question 21

“Can”-definition and the Principle of Causality

Answer 21

Discussion on interpreting the principle of causality, particularly regarding the use of “can” in defining causality.

Tautological: “can” means it’s always logically possible to construct a causal explanation for any event.

Synthetic: “can” suggests the world is governed by strict laws, implying that every event follows universal regularities, then the principle becomes synthetic.

Question 22

Strictly Universal and Numerically Universal

Answer 22

Types of universal synthetic statements categorized as either strictly universal (pertaining to theories or laws - universal statements) or numerically universal (pertaining to singular statements)

Strict Universality: Statements or laws that apply universally without any exceptions.

Numerical Universality: Statements that apply to every instance within a specific, finite set.

Question 23

Universal Concepts and Individual Concepts

Answer 23

Distinction between concepts or names that are universal (applicable to all instances) and those that are individual (specific to particular instances)

Question 24

Strictly Universal and Existential Statements

Answer 24

Differentiation between strictly existential statements, which assert the existence of specific entities or states of affairs, and their relevance to scientific inquiry

Question 25

Theoretical Systems

Answer 25

Formal structures based on fundamental assumptions (axioms) used for deriving other statements logically

Question 26

Levels of Universality

Answer 26

The scope and generality of statements, from specific to highly general or universal.

Highly Specific Statements:
* Example: “This apple is red.”

Less Specific Statements:
* Example: “Apples can be red.”

General Statements:
* Example: “All apples have seeds.”

Highly General Statements:
* Example: “All fruits are nutritious.”

Universal Laws:
* Example: “All matter is subject to gravitational force.”

Question 27

Modus Tollens

Answer 27

Modus Tollens is a form of logical argument that uses a conditional statement to draw a conclusion based on the negation of the consequent.

• Premise 1 (Conditional Statement): If P then Q
• Premise 2 (Negation): Not Q
• Conclusion: Not P