Issues and debates ao1 Flashcards
(GB) what is gender bias
understanding behaviour based on misleading views of gender effects
(GB) what is androcentrism
centred on males
(GB) what biases can androcentrism lead to
alpha bias and beta bias
(GB)what is alpha bias
exaggerating the difference between men and women
(GB)what is a consequence of alpha bias
leads to stereotypes and one gender is devalued in comparison with the other
(GB)example of a study showing alpha bias
Chodorow (1968) said women develop better bonds and empathy due to daughters being connected to mothers from biological similarity
(GB)what is beta bias
Tendency to underestimate gender differences.
(GB)examples of beta bias
Zimbardo, Asch and Milgram didn’t include women and assumed they would have found the same results which minimises the gender differences where it may be inappropriate to do so.
(GB)how can gender bias be overcome
greater representation of women or men to prevent over generalising the results
(CB)What is the definition of ‘cultural bias’?
When all human behavior is interpreted from the perspective of one cultural viewpoint
(CB)What are WEIRD people?
(Westernised, Educated people from Industrialised, Rich Democracies) Henrich et al noted that ‘WEIRD’ people were most likely to be studied by psychologists.
(CB)What is ethnocentrism ?
When a researcher takes their own cultural behaviour as normal
(CB)Give an example of ethnocentrism
Ainsworth and Bell’s (1970) strange situation: developed to assess attachment types, many researchers believe that the same results can be generalised to all cultures even though the infants are American. German children had a higher rate of insecure avoidant attachment as German parents value and encourage independent behaviour.
(CB)What is cultural relativism?
Behaviours can only be understood from the perspective of its cultural context.
(CB)Give an example of cultural relativism
Sternberg (1985) pointed out that coordination skills that may be essential to life in a preliterate society may be mostly irrelevant to intelligent behaviour for most people
(CB)What is the ‘etic’ approach?
Behaviours that are universal across all cultural groups (smiling when happy)
(CB)What is the ‘emic’ approach?
Behaviours that apply only to certain cultural groups and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture.
(CB)What does ‘imposed etic’ mean?
Ainsworth and Bell studied behaviours inside a single culture and assumed the ideal attachment type could be applied universally
(CB)What does alpha bias mean with regard to culture?
Occurs when a theory assumes that cultural groups are profoundly different
(CB)What is beta bias with regard to culture?
Occurs when real cultural differences are ignored or minimalised and all people are assumed to be the same
(CB)What is universality with regard to culture?
The idea that conclusions drawn in psychological research can be applied to everybody, everywhere regardless of time or culture
(FWOD) What is hard determinism?
Behaviour is completely predictable and controlled by causal factors. Seen as incompatible with free will
(FWOD)What is soft determinism?
Casual factors influence behaviour however free will allows choice
(FWOD) What is biological determinism?
Behaviour is controlled by aspects of biology,, genes etc
(FWOD) What is free will?
Idea that we play an active role and have choice in how we behave. Individuals are self determines and free to chose behaviour
(FWOD) What is psychic determinism?
Behaviour is the result of childhood experiences and your innate drives. Freuds model of psychosexual development
(FWOD) What is environmental determinism?
Behaviour is caused by forces outside the individual. Therefore, behaviour is caused by previous experience learned through classical and operant conditioning.
(NvN) What aspect does ‘nature’ focus on as driving behavior?
Inherited influences
(NvN) What philosophical tradition does this follow on from?
Descartes
(NvN) What does the ‘nature’ position propose about psychological characteristics?
They are determined by biological factors
(NvN) What aspect does nurture focus on?
Influence of environment and experience
(NvN) What philosophical tradition does this follow on from?
Locke - mind is a blank state
(NvN) Which psychological approach is this position most closely aligned with?
Behaviour approach
(NvN) What is the interactionist approach?
Both nature and nurture work together to shape human behaviour. The nature / nurture debate is out of date
(NvN) What is the diathesis-stress model?
Behaviour is caused by a biological/ environmental vulnerability which is only expressed when coupled with a biological/environmental trigger
(NvN) How is epigenetics seen to influence psychology?
A change in genetic activity without a change in the genetic code
(NvN) Provide examples of the interactionist approach
An infants interaction type may be driven by the interaction of parental warmth (Bowlby 1965)
(NvN) Provide an example of the diathesis stress model
Parents with schizophrenia have a genetic vulnerability, but this is only expressed if they come into contact with environmental triggers and may not otherwise develop the disorder
(NvN) Provide an example of the epigenetic approach
Lifestyle (smoking, trauma) can cause genes to switch on/off which could also be passed on to offspring.
(HvR) What are the 5 levels of explanation?
Social cultural
Psychological/cognitive
Behavioural
Physiological
Neurochemical
(HvR) how do the explanations differ
They vary from those at a lower level focusing on basic components to those at a higher more holistic multi variable level
(HvR) holism definition
Idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience and not as separate parts
(HvR) reductionism definition
The belief that human behaviour is best understood by studying the smaller constituent parts.
(HvR) How does holism vs reductionism differ from other issues/debates
There is no continuum between holism and reductionism
(HvR) 3 aspects of holism
-focuses on the individuals experience
-compatible with the humanistic approach
-uses qualitative measures to investigate the self
(HvR) Apply all levels of explanation to OCD
Social and cultural – atypical behaviour (repetitative hand washing)
Psychological – individual experience of obsessive thoughts
Physical – sequence of movements in hand washing
Environmental – learned experiences
Physiological – abnormal functioning of frontal lobes
Neurochemical – under-production of serotonin
(HvR) environmental reductionism
All behaviour acquired through stimulus response interactions
(HvR) biological reductionism
All behaviour is explained through neurochemical, physiological, evolutionary
and genetic mechanisms
(IvN) what does ideographic approach focus on
Focus on the individual and emphasise unique personal experience of human
nature
(IvN) what does nomothetic approach focus on
Concerned with establishing laws based on large group studies of people
(IvN) 6 characteristics of idiographic approach
-Low number of ppts in research, often case studies
-Focus on detail about the individual
-generalisations could be made but initial focus is on individual
-qualitative research
-use of in depth unstructured interviews
-analysis aims to identify emergent themes
(IvN) 2 examples of idiographic approach
Associated with humanistic and psychodynamic approach
Rogers : studied process of self development using therapeutic interviews.
Freud : close observations of ‘Little Hans’ to explain phobias
(IvN) 4 characteristics of nomothetic approach
-aim to quantify human behaviour to establish generalisations
-use of quantitative research
-related to scientific approach: hypothesis, sample recruitment and testing; data
analysed for statistical significance
-tools may include structured interviews of psychological tests
(IvN) 2 examples of nomothetic approach
Associated with biological and behavioural approach
Skinner : studies animals to ascertain general laws of learning. Focused on
relationship between stimulus-response learning
Sperry : split-brain research, using repeated testing to inform brain lateralisation
(IvN) Compare objective vs subjectivity from the perspective of the idiographic and nomothetic approach
Idiographic – objectivity seen not possible. Individual experience of personal
context.
Nomothetic – objectivity is central to the approach. Uses standardised tests and
aims to establish replication and exclude bias
