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CLPS 0020 > Intro to Cognitive Science - Unit 3 > Flashcards

Intro to Cognitive Science - Unit 3 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the general ideas that enable the categorization of unique stimuli as related to one another?

A

Concepts (183)

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2
Q

What does the classical approach to categorization assume?

A

That the defining features on a concept are governed by a conjunctive rule stating that every feature must be present for an object to fit the concept: very stringent (184)

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3
Q

What is a “rule-governed concept?”

A

A concept that specifies the features and relations that define membership in the class on an all-or-none basis, like real numbers, gravity, touchdowns, etc. (184)

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4
Q

What kind of concepts does the classical approach to categorization assumes applies to all objects?

A

Rule-governed concepts (184)

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5
Q

What is an “object concept?”

A

Refers to natural objects (biological objects) and artifacts (man-made), often organized hierarchically: like robin, bird, animal (184)

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6
Q

What is the contrast between rule-governed and object concepts?

A

There’s no really defining set of characteristics to help you determine whether an object fits an object concept (184)

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7
Q

Can there ever be a fuzzy boundary between concept memberships?

A

Duh: varying images of cups/glasses/bowls/mugs…. Hunger vs thirst affected view of bowl vs cup (186)

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8
Q

What is a “prototype?”

A

The best or most typical member of a category: important mental representation of the concept; when shifting from it, there’s a gradient away from the prototype; “cover figure” (186)

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9
Q

What is the family resemblance structure of object concepts? Who coined this phrase?

A

When the definitions for a category are a large number of broader features that may not all apply in every case, instead of a smaller set of defining features (188)

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10
Q

How can one measure how close or far an object is to the category’s prototype?

A

By the speed at which they can identify that word as part of the category (188)

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11
Q

What is the typicality effect?

A

The gradient of category membership, or differences in how well specific instances represent a concept (188)

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12
Q

Can a concept be coherent even without structural/functional/perceptual similarities?

A

Yes: things to take out of the house in a fire, for example (188)

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13
Q

What did Barton and Komatsu discover about changing internal features or functional features for natural kinds or artifacts?

A

Changing the internal molecular structure of natural kinds of objects led to different categorization, and changing the functional structure of artifacts led to different categorization: for example, a tire isn’t made of rubber will still be categorized as a tire, but a tire that doesn’t roll will not be (189)

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14
Q

What two brain areas are activated when assigning words to concepts?

A

The VLPFC and the ventral/lateral regions of the posterior temporal cortex (189)

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15
Q

Why is there activation in the temporal lobe when assigning words/objects to categories/concepts?

A

Because the temporal lobe is the end of the “what” visual pathway: each area of the temporal lobe houses a particular concept: for example, the fusiform face gyrus (189)

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16
Q

Changes in number but not object identity are registered in the ___, but changes in object identity but not number are registered in the ___.

A

Intraparietal sulcus, fusiform gyrus in the temporal lobe (190)

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17
Q

What is a schema?

A

A cognitive structure that organizes related concepts and integrates past events (190)

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18
Q

What are “frames” in relation to schemas?

A

Schemas that represent the physical structure of the environment (190)

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19
Q

What is the essence of a frame? What does it do?

A

Gives a detailed structural description of the concepts and relations among concepts that define a given physical environment (191)

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20
Q

What are “scripts” in relation to schemas?

A

Schemas that represent routine activities (191)

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21
Q

What is a meta-representation?

A

A mental representation of another mental representation: allows you to think about another thought (191)

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22
Q

What is mindblindness? What is it a characteristic of?

A

Inability to understand that others have mental representations too: common feature of autism (192)

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23
Q

What is an imaginal code?

A

A concrete means of mental representation that directly conveys perceptual qualities: if perceived visually, then the mental image seems like the original perception (194)

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24
Q

What is a propositional code?

A

An abstract means of mental representation that’s not linked to any sensory modality: represents the features of an object without forming an image, like a bird word map (194)

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25
Q

Who pioneered the study of visual images by experimenting with mental rotation?

A

Shepard et al, 1974, 1983, 1971 (195)

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26
Q

Propositional code

A

An abstract means of mental representation not linked to any sensory modality (194)

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27
Q

What did Shepard et al discover about mental rotation?

A

That the time taken to identify that the rotated image matched the original increased linearly as a function of the angle of rotation, disqualifying the idea of propositional mental representations (197)

28
Q

What did Kosslyn discover about scanning small mental images versus large ones?

A

It’s hard to scan to find features in small mental images (199)

29
Q

What does it mean that mental imagery has an analog aspect?

A

That the representation’s features are analogous/correspond to the features of the object: for example, distance: if two cities are further apart on a map, it takes longer for the brain to mentally draw a straight line between then (199)

30
Q

What is the functional equivalence hypothesis?

A

Claims that visual imagery uses the same mental representations, processes, and neural structures as does visual perception (199)

31
Q

As found by Farah, 1988, lesions in visual areas affect not only sight, but what else?

A

Imagery, in accordance with the functional equivalence hypothesis (199)

32
Q

What is a proposition?

A

An abstract representation that is the smallest unit of knowledge that one can judge to be true or false (202)

33
Q

What is “latent semantic analysis?”

A

A mathematical procedure for extracting/representing the propositions expressed in the text: allows comparison in terms of propositional content and enables question-answering about the text (203)

34
Q

What is a semantic network model?

A

The hierarchical structure by which one organizes concepts and their associated features (204)

35
Q

What does the cognitive economy assumption claim?

A

That each feature of a concept is listed at only one level in the semantic network model: so you don’t need to store that a canary can sing and has skin, because skin is already listed under animal, which canary is a part of (204)

36
Q

Which is faster, identity judgments or basic-level categorization?

A

Identity judgments: easier to say a canary is a canary than a canary is a bird (204)

37
Q

When verifying that a subordinate object is part of basic or superordinate category, which takes longer?

A

Superordinate: higher up in the semantic network model’s hierarchy (204)

38
Q

Which researchers studied the semantic network model of category retrieval, leading to WordNet?

A

Collins and Quillian, 1969 (204)

39
Q

Do people represent a strict hierarchy of class relations? Who discovered the answer to this?

A

Rips, Shoben, and Smith (1973) : no, because “collie = mammal” takes longer than “collie = animal” when according to a strict hierarchy, animal is higher than mammal (@06)

40
Q

What did Conrad notice was wrong with Collins’ and Quillian’s semantic network model of class retrieval?

A

It’s not completely accurate: retrieval depends on how strongly connected a feature is to the object (way faster than expected association between orange = edible) and there aren’t differences where there should be (time for bird = move is just as fast as animal = move) (207)

41
Q

What model arose to combat the semantic network model?

A

The feature comparison model (207)

42
Q

What is the feature comparison model?

A

The model that claims that characteristic/defining features are assessed and categorized first, and then more defining features are retrieved if necessary (207)

43
Q

What two effects does the feature comparison model explain that the semantic network model does not?

A

Typicality effect (differences in how well specific instances relate to a concept) and the category size effect (faster identification if object relates to small group than larger) (207)

44
Q

Which research is responsible for the category size effect?

A

D.E. Meyer, 1970 (207)

45
Q

What is one of the drawbacks to the feature comparison model?

A

It doesn’t explain why false statements with similar concepts (all dogs = cats) take less processing time than “all animals = birds,” because dogs vs cats should take two levels or processing (defining+characteristic, then defining) whereas animals vs birds should only take one (defining+characteristic) (208)

46
Q

What are the five assumptions of the classical approach to representation?

A

Representations are mediating states of intelligent systems that carry info; cognitive systems require some enduring representations; cognitive systems have symbols; some representations are tied to particular perceptual systems, some are amodal; many cognitive functions can be modeled without regard to the particular sensor/effector systems of the cognitive agent (451)

47
Q

What does Barsalou’s perceptual symbol system approach propose?

A

The perceptual system is used to simulate objects and events in order to represent the external world: representing an apple in a bowl = simulating an apple on top of other apples using the perceptual system (451)

48
Q

What does the perceptual approach suggest?

A

That there aren’t just amodal symbols: specific representations derived from perception provide greater flexibility (452)

49
Q

What does the study of situated action assume?

A

That cognitive processing cannot be extracted from the environment in which it occurs (452)

50
Q

What does change blindness say about situated cognition?

A

The agent can and does leave out certain information when storing representations: difficult to detect changes of unattended info (452)

51
Q

What aspect of the classical model of representation does the embodied cognition model reject?

A

The idea that cognitive theories can ignore perceptual/motor systems: it’s necessary to build agents that actually interact in real environments (453)

52
Q

What are dynamical systems?

A

Systems of nonlinear differential equations used to describe aspects of behavior: involve continuous change in values of control variables (WTF? 453)

53
Q

What does the dynamical system approach suggest?

A

That representations are time-locked to info in the represented world: if the world changes, so does the representation (453)

54
Q

What approach to categorization does Sloutsky propose?

A

The similarity-based approach: early on, humans use perceptual and attentional mechanisms to detect multiple similarities (246)

55
Q

Why is categorization economical?

A

It’s easier to incorporate many individual entities into a smaller number of classes (246)

56
Q

Why does Sloutsky believe categorization is important?

A

1) resource efficient; 2) supports organization of knowledge; 3) supports inductive projection (246)

57
Q

What does Sloutsky mean by inductive generalization?

A

The combined ability of categorization and inductive projection (246)

58
Q

What is the “classical” view of conceptual development?

A

That first, representations of categories develop arise from accidental features/appearance similarities, but they then evolve into mature representations based on logical rules (246)

59
Q

What view of conceptual development has replaced the “classical” view?

A

Naïve-theory of knowledge-based (246)

60
Q

What does the naïve-theory/knowledge-based position posit?

A

mature categorization cannot develop from simpler perceptual components because even for young children, “perceptual features… play a peripheral role in categorization” compared to conceptually central features, and other reasons (247)

61
Q

What are some limitations to the naïve-theory or knowledge-based position of conceptual development?

A

No origin of conceptual knowledge explained, the explanatory concepts are themselves complex, and the assumptions on which it’s based are being disproved (247)

62
Q

What is the central argument of the similarity-based approach?

A

That “there are multiple correlations in the environment and that humans have perceptual and attentional mechanisms capable of extracting these regularities and establishing correspondences among correlated structures” (247)

63
Q

What did the Gelman and Markman triad experiment demonstrate?

A

linguistic labels relay conceptual information that is more central than perceptual similarity (247) because: pine-cone-looking “starfish” identified as living in water even though it looked more like a tree-dwelling pinecone

64
Q

Why does it seem that labels gain their weight from an attentional mechanism?

A

Because peripheral features do in fact affect the centrality of essential features: there aren’t fixed roles of central vs peripheral, but rather flexible attentional weight (428)

65
Q

Why is it believed that labels affect inductive generalization thanks to general auditory attentional bias rather than general language attentional bias?

A

In Sloutsky+Napolitano’s study, children were more likely to select the auditory match than the visual match (249)

66
Q

What is perceptual learning?

A

a process by which some features or stimulus dimensions become more distinct as a result of experience, whereas others become more equivalent (249)

67
Q

What does the evidence from infancy research paradigms suggest about experience with multiple exemplars?

A

That when presented with multiple exemplars, the perceptual system is directed towards “extracting important category-specific regularities,” ie that it becomes better at picking out the similarities in order to distinguish whether novel stimuli belong to a familiar category or not (249)

CLPS 0020 (13 decks)

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