infection and response 2 Flashcards
vaccination
put inactive form of the disease into body
bodys immune system will react and create anti bodies for the disasese
eventually when the time comes around body will be ready to kill the bacteria quicker as antibodies are there
painkillers
Painkillers are chemicals that relieve the symptoms but do not kill the pathogens.
antibiotics
Antibiotics are substances that slow down or stop the growth of bacteria
can you use antibiotics for viruses
Viral diseases cannot be cured by antibiotics, as they reproduce inside the host cells. It is very difficult to develop antiviral drugs, as they might damage the host cell whist killing the virus.
monoclonal antibodies
An antigen is injected into a mouse
The mouse naturally produces lymphocytes, which produce antibodies specific to the antigen
Spleen cells which produce the lymphocytes are removed during a small operation
The spleen cells are fused with human cancerous white blood cells called myeloma cells to form hybridoma cells which divide indefinitely
These hybridoma cells divide and produce millions of monoclonal antibodies specific to the original antigen
uses of monoclnal antibodies preg tests
Pregnancy test kits use monoclonal antibodies. These have been designed to bind with a hormone called HCG which is found only in the urine of pregnant women. Monoclonal antibodies are attached to the end of a pregnancy test stick onto which a woman urinates. If she is pregnant, HCG will be present in her urine and will bind to the monoclonal antibodies on the test stick. This will cause a change in colour or pattern which will indicate pregnancy. These specific monoclonal antibodies in the pregnancy test will only bind with HCG.
uses of monoclonal cancer
Cancerous cells have antigens. Monoclonal antibodies can be designed to bind specifically with these antigens. When injected into a person’s body, the monoclonal antibodies will bind with these cancer cells and clump them together. This makes it easier to identify a cancerous tumour, which can then be treated or removed.
Monoclonal antibodies have also been designed to treat cancer by:
carrying drugs that have been attached to them, to the tumour
encouraging your immune system to attack the cancer cells directly
benefits of monoclonal
Monoclonal antibodies can be designed to bind to, and identify, almost any substance. They can be used for many purposes:
testing for pregnancy by detecting HCG hormones in urine
testing for diseases such herpes and chlamydia, and HIV which can lead to the development of AIDS
to treat conditions like cancer by carrying drugs directly to the tumour cells, and helping the immune system attack them
monoclonal antibodies can be produced quickly despite the fact that it can be time consuming when they are made for the first time
problems with monoclonal antibodies
An ethical issue is one in which people disagree for religious or other moral reasons. The first step in making a monoclonal antibody is to inject a mouse with an antigen. After it has produced antibodies, a small operation removes spleen cells, which then continue make the antibodies. Some people disagree with this use of animals to produce monoclonal antibodies
nitrate ion deficieny
Plants use nitrates as a supply of nitrogen, which is needed to make proteins for healthy growth. Plants absorb nitrates in water through their roots. Nitrates are present in high levels in plant fertilisers.
Without nitrates, the amount of chlorophyll in leaves reduces. This means leaves turn a pale green or yellow colour. This reduces the plant’s ability to photosynthesise and grow properly, which reduces the farmers’ crop yield. Farmers or gardeners can add chemical or natural fertilisers, such as manure to increase nitrate levels.
magnesium
Plants use magnesium ions to make chlorophyll in their leaves. Like in nitrate deficiency, the plant is limited in terms of its photosynthetic ability and the plant growth is compromised. Magnesium is a limiting factor in healthy plant growth.
how can farmers identify if there plants have a disease
Farmers and gardeners often use books and the internet to identify plant diseases. They can also take a small cutting of an infected plant (or a photograph of it) to a local garden centre, which have staff that can often help identify and treat the disease
plant chemical defences
Some plants such as mint and witch hazel produce antibacterial chemicals. These limit the spread of bacteria that were not stopped by physical defences.
plant physical defences
Many plants are covered with a thick bark. This is an external layer of dead cells which forms a physical barrier against infection.
cell wall
leaves have waxy cuticle
Mechanical plant defences
Thorns and hairs
drooping leaves
mimicry
