individual differences

Question 1

definition of personality

Answer 1

what makes a person unique

Question 2

trait theory

Answer 2

Inherited or genetically predetermined qualities
So..
• traits are stable, enduring and consistent in all situations
• personality or behaviour is therefore generalised and predictable e.g. some people are always aggressive

Question 3

social learning theory - personality

Answer 3

Copying the behaviour of others, and being reinforced for copying it.
Copying is more likely if the model is significant and if their behaviour is reinforced (vicarious reinforcement).
So…
• behaviour is learned from the environment
• personality or behaviour is therefore predictable if the same situation reoccurs.

Question 4

internationalist theory

Answer 4

interaction between personality traits and the situation, behaviour changes to the demands of the situation
•a combination of trait and social learning factors
So…
• typical responses emerge from the combination of personality traits and the environment
• personality or behaviour is unpredictable

Question 5

extroverts personalities

Answer 5

•tend to be outgoing; may be suited to team sports
•affiliate to and are confident with other people
•have a reticular activating system which is low in sensitivity (R.A.S. is an area of the brain which alters alertness)
•therefore become aroused slowly

Question 6

introvert personalities

Answer 6

•tend to have an inward focus; may be suited to individual sports
•prefer isolation
•may lack confidence when in social groups
•have a reticular activating system which is high in sensitivity (high R.A.S.).
•therefore become aroused quickly

Question 7

stable personalities

Answer 7

•tend to have a predictable temperament; may be suited to sports needing high performance
•moods are likely to be consistent
•appear calm and relaxed
•likely to be low in anxiety
•realistic, logical perception of a situation

Question 8

unstable personalities

Answer 8

•tend to be unpredictable in temperament; not ideal for sports participation
•moods are likely to be inconsistent (mood swings)
•prone to worry and high anxiety
•unrealistic or illogical perception of a situation

Question 9

type A

Answer 9

•Tends to become highly aroused
•Prone to excessive anxiety
•Impatient with themselves and others
•Works fast and is ambitious
•Tendency towards aggression
•Highly competitive and likes control of situations
E.g. a coach with type A personality characteristics may dispute a referee’s judgement/decision

Question 10

type B

Answer 10

•Able to control arousal / keep arousal low
•Can relax and subdue anxiety
•Patient with themselves and others
•Cool under pressure
•Passive
•Less competitive than type A
E.g. an athlete with type B personality characteristics is able to stay relaxed before a major event

Question 11

definition of attitude

Answer 11

An emotional response that influences behaviour and brings about an individual’s typical actions towards an object

Question 12

factors affecting attitude formation

Answer 12

•The norms of a social group develop the attitudes of its individual members
•Peers often influence the formation of attitudes
•Religious beliefs may shape attitudes E.g. some athletes feel they cannot compete on Sunday
•Attitudes are shaped by role models.
•Education influences our beliefs
•Cultural factors may form attitudes
Eg: gender role perception
•The media strongly influences our attitudes E.g. television may determine our involvement in/view of sport

Question 13

components of attitude

Answer 13

1. cognitive component
2. affective component
3. behavioural comp

Question 14

cognitive components

Answer 14

The belief or knowledge a person has about the attitude object.
E.g. running helps to improve my cardio-vascular system.

Question 15

affective component

Answer 15

The emotional aspect of attitude.
Whether the attitude object gives a good feeling.
Enjoyment will produce a positive emotional feeling.
E.g. I enjoy the physical feeling when I run.

Question 16

behavioural component

Answer 16

The response or behaviour toward the attitude object.
If the cognitive and the affective components are positive, then the response to the attitude object will be positive.
E.g. I believe running has fitness benefits and the activity is enjoyable - therefore I will run

Question 17

Methods of attitude change

Answer 17

•persuasive communication
•cognitive dissonance

Question 18

persuasive communication theory

Answer 18

1. the persuader = This person needs to have high status e.g. the coach of the team.
2. The recipient = an attitude is easily changed if the recipient really wants it to change e.g. the player understands why change is needed.
3. The message = This needs to be presented in a way that makes the player want to change e.g. you have the skill to perform this tactic.
4. The situation = Attitudes are changed more easily if other persuaders are present e.g. team members to provide encouragement.

Question 19

cognitive dissonance

Answer 19

•By changing one component of the Triadic Model, the whole (negative) attitude can be changed
•Changing one component of attitude causes psychological discord or conflict.
•This conflict between two ideas is cognitive dissonance
•Cognitive dissonance is a good way to change a negative attitude because a person is motivated to restore balance between the attitude components
•Motivation to recreate harmony is called drive for consonance.

Question 20

The following example of cognitive dissonance theory focuses on the negative attitude towards learning to swim.

Answer 20

•changing the cognitive element requires changing the belief or knowledge about the attitude object e.g. learning to swim helps to keep you safe
•Changing the affective element requires changing emotions or feelings e.g. learning with toys is fun, and the water in the learner pool is warm
•Changing the behavioural element changes the action towards the attitude object e.g. using mechanical guidance or simplifying the task (using arm bands or other flotation aids) makes swimming easier

Question 21

definition of motivation

Answer 21

The drive, energy and effort an individual applies to achieve a goal

Question 22

intrinsic motivation

Answer 22

The drive from within a person to perform a task or activity for its own sake.
Performance is driven by the pursuit of personal satisfaction and challenge.
E.g. climbing a mountain for personal reward

Question 23

intrinsic motivation uses

Answer 23

•good for performers of all experience
•success brings a high level of personal satisfaction at all stages of learning
•helps the performer to set new goals which are personal to the individual
•leads to long lasting results

Intrinsic motivation tends to help a performer sustain interest and continue participation

Question 24

extrinsic motivation

Answer 24

The drive to perform a task or activity in order to achieve a tangible reward.
Performance is driven by external factors.
E.g. taking part in a rugby tournament to win a trophy

Question 25

extrinsic motivation uses

Answer 25

•good for the first time performer at the cognitive stage of learning
•provides clear evidence of success often through tangible reward
•helps the recipient to gain status within the peer group
•its beneficial effectiveness is usually short lived

Extrinsic motivation tends to lose impact if the opportunity for reward is taken away

Question 26

arousal definition

Answer 26

the level of excitement that a person feels, or the physiological and psychological readiness a person feels.

Question 27

Drive theory equation

Answer 27

B = H x D
(Behaviour = Habit x Drive)

Question 28

what does the drive theory state

Answer 28

There is a linear relationship between arousal and the performance of the dominant response.
The dominant response is the learned behaviour (response) that is most likely to occur when arousal increases.

Question 29

drive theory on novices

Answer 29

•Novices are affected negatively and perform badly when their arousal is high because…
•the dominant response of a novice (at cognitive stage) is likely to be incorrect
•Low levels of arousal best suit learners at the cognitive and associative stages of learning
•High arousal inhibits the performance of perceptual and fine motor skills e.g. spin bowling in cricket

Question 30

drive theory experts

Answer 30

•Experts are affected positively and perform well when their arousal is high because.
•the dominant response of an expert is likely to be correct
•High arousal will benefit expert performers who like to be challenged
•High arousal helps the performance of dynamic skills e.g. sprinting or explosive skills e.g. shot put

Question 31

inverted U theory

Answer 31

•As arousal increases the quality of performance increases (and continues to increase) up to the optimum point.
•Performance and the capacity to learn is best at the optimum point.
•After the optimum point or if arousal continues to increase performance will deteriorate gradually as show by downward curve.

Question 32

effects of under arousal (inverted U)

Answer 32

performance will be below potential due to attentional broadening: the performer does not focus on relevant cues and does not filter out irrelevant information, causing overload of information.

Question 33

effects of optimum arousal

Answer 33

causes the attentional field to adjust to the ideal width; this has a positive effect on selective attention and cue-utilisation (the ability to focus and act on appropriate cues). This maximises capacity to make fast and accurate decisions.

Question 34

effects of over arousal

Answer 34

performance will decline due to hyper vigilance and perceptual or attentional narrowing (the performer is over -focused and filters out relevant cues, causing panic).
This leads to poor decision making

Question 35

Task type, personality & skill level determine the position of the optimum point for each individual

Answer 35

Complex or fine skills. introverts and novices have lower optimum arousal levels
Gross or simple skills. extroverts and autonomous performers have higher optimal arousal

Question 36

catastrophe theory

Answer 36

•If somatic arousal increases, so does performance up to the optimal point, but only if cognitive anxiety is kept low
•If high cognitive anxiety combines with high somatic arousal the performer goes beyond the optimal point
•The performer loses concentration and there is a sharp decline in performance, e.g. dropping a straightforward catch in cricket.

Question 37

performance after the catastrophe

Answer 37

•If arousal is controlled (lowered) after the performer ‘goes over the edge,’ performance can improve, and the upward curve of arousal can be re-joined.
• If arousal continues to increase after the sharp drop in performance further deterioration will occur.

Question 38

anxiety definition

Answer 38

a state of apprehension, worry, uneasiness or eagerness

Question 39

state anxiety

Answer 39

An individual’s immediate but temporary level of anxiety in a particular situation e.g. worry about making an impact from the bench during a key football match

Question 40

trait anxiety

Answer 40

The general inclination of a person to perceive situations as threatening. This is stable, enduring and global.

Question 41

Responses to anxiety

Answer 41

•Somatic response: the physical symptoms, including increased heart rate and blood pressure
•Cognitive response: a performer’s thoughts or worries about their abilities to complete the task successfully

Question 42

Hanin (1986) - levels of anxiety

Answer 42

•found that each individual has their own ideal level of anxiety which elicits their best performance.
•An individual’s preferred level of anxiety is shown as a band width not as a point.
If a performer is within their preferred zone, optimal performance is more likely.
•If they are not in their zone, they will not perform at their best.

Question 43

Athlete A

Answer 43

•In the zone at low anxiety (optimal performance)
•Out of the zone, Anxiety too high (sub optimal performance)

Question 44

Athlete B

Answer 44

•Out of the zone, Anxiety too low (sub optimal performance)
•In the zone at moderate anxiety (optimal performance)
•Out of the zone, Anxiety too high (sub optimal performance)

Question 45

Athlete C

Answer 45

•Out of the zone, Anxiety too low (sub optimal performance)
•In the zone at high anxiety (optimal performance)

Question 46

definition of aggression

Answer 46

Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or verbal means.(Bull 1990)
An act with the intention to harm or injure an individual who is motivated to avoid such harm. (Baron 1994)

Question 47

Instinct theory

Answer 47

•a trait theory proposed by Freud (1920)
•states that aggression is inevitable as it is genetically inherited, and is therefore predictable
•the aggressive trait is called the ‘death instinct’ which is behaving aggressively, even when self destructive (not in the individual’s best interests).

Question 48

social learning theory (aggression)

Answer 48

•proposed by Bandura (1966)
•aggression is learned through imitation of others, particularly of role models
•aggression is more likely to be copied if the role model is reinforced for it
•aggression is more likely if it is the social norm of the group, which may link to the sport being played. Eg: American football

Question 49

frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 49

•proposed by Dollard (1939)
•this theory proposed that frustration is caused by the environment blocking the goals of the performer, which inevitably triggers aggression.
•if the aggressive act is successful, frustration will be released through catharsis.
•if the act is unsuccessful or is punished, then there will be a further build up of aggression.

Question 50

aggressive cue hypothesis

Answer 50

•proposed by Berkowitz (1969)
•this theory proposed that frustration leads to increased arousal which creates a readiness for aggression
aggression will only be triggered if provoked by a cue from the environment. e.g. if a player’s arousal is high and the referee makes a decision which is considered unfair, an aggressive act will follow.