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social, personality and individual differences 2 > Implicit Theories and Intelligence Case Studies > Flashcards

Implicit Theories and Intelligence Case Studies Flashcards

• To consider what ‘intelligence’ is • To explore implicit theories of intelligence from laypeople (non-experts) and where these stem from • To explore historical non-consensus on expert views of intelligence. To consider the context under which formal tests and theories were developed to consider the influences of the dark-side of intelligence

1
Q

Why are implicit theories so important?

A
  1. real world implications in our everyday lives
  2. formal theories of intelligence can come from more implicit theories (implicit gives rise)
  3. helps question formal theories and their validity
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2
Q

what are implicit theories?

A

individuals develop theories, beliefs and deeply held schemas about human attributes (and intelligence which is an attribute subject to this)

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3
Q

the unconsciousness of implicit theories:

A

ideas of intelligence split into explicit and implicit (which feeds into explicit)

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4
Q

what are implicit ideas of intelligence?

A

before thoughts can become explicit, well have these implicit unconscious ideas linking ti schemas (thoughts and feelings of intelligence can come up unconsciously from our interaction and experiences within life)

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5
Q

what are explicit ideas of intelligence?

A

conscious / explicit ideas of what we think / believe intelligence is (likely to come across formal ideas as well)

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6
Q

does the amount explicit and implicit vary?

A

yes, it varies among a group
^ unconscious can become explicit but you will always have some sort of unconscious implicit ideas

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7
Q

what does implicit theories of intelligence link to?

A

unconscious bias -> lead to prejudice and unconscious ideas which are harmful to communities

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8
Q

Personal Theories of intelligence interact with every aspect of our lives [Sternberg (2000)].

What are some examples where personal theories of intelligence have an impact

A
  • education
  • work
  • friend
  • family
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9
Q

(Dwerk, 1986) looked at implicit theories or mindsets, arguing that people fall into two camps of thinking when it comes to intelligence, especially when associated with motivation. what are these two?

A
  1. intelligence is flexible and can be changed (incremental)
  2. intelligence is fixed and can’t be changed (entity)
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10
Q

we can argue that implicit theories of mindset linked to motivation..

A

aren’t just related to self-belief but also belief about others
* opinions might be contextual depending on the situation -> there might be a bit of a continuum as you will never always be flexible or always be fixed

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11
Q

(Costa & Faria, 2018) Meta-analysis of studies looking at the role of personal implicit theories of intelligence on academic performance
* reviewed 46 studies (412,022 students) which collected implicit theory data through self-report measures (mainly derived from Dweck, 1999).
* correlated with academic grades in different subjects

What did they find?

A
  • low but sig assoc between implicit theories and academic performance (particular for grades within subjects focusing on verbal / quantitative skills (english / maths / science)
  • those who viewed intelligence as malleable were more likely to have better grades overall (inc verbal and quantitative subs)
  • those who viewed intelligence as fixed still showed a (not as strong) positive association with grades in specific subjects but not to the same extent as those with a malleable view
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12
Q

this meta-analysis supports other findings in the literature, what are some examples of these?

A
  • malleable views of intelligence tend to lead to higher motivation and attainment
  • fixed views tend to lead to lower motivation and attainment

^ suggests thoughts / ideas about intelligence of ourselves can impact how we perform within an educational setting
[Blackwell et al. (2007) and Dweck (1999)]

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13
Q

Heslin et al. (2005) considered the role of implicit theories managers hold around personality, ability and intelligence influences their recognition of changes in employee behaviours.

They looked at 4 different studies, what were these?

A
  • recognition of improved performance after poor performance
  • recognition of declining performance after good performance
  • effect of irrelevant poor performance information on performance ratings
  • if training a manager to hold a different / adjust implicit belief would impact their appraisal ratings
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14
Q

What was found in the recognition of improved performance after poor performance cognition?

A

those with a malleable view were more likely to recognise improved performance compared to those with a fixed view

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15
Q

What was found in the recognition of declining performance after good performance?

A

those with malleable view were more likely to recognise declining performance compared to those with a fixed view

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16
Q

What was the finding in effect of irrelevant poor performance information on performance ratings?

A

irrelevant poor performance was more likely to impact the performance rating of those with a fixed view

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17
Q

what was the finding if training a manager to hold a different / adjust implicit belief would impact their appraisal ratings

A

exposing those with a fixed view to malleable views could modify their view to a more malleable one and those that adopted this view were more open to acknowledging changes in employee performance (more able to recognise those changes in performance)

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18
Q

what do these findings suggest on an outer implications

A

given they had an impact, if there is an unconscious bias that are prejudice in nature, they can have a negative impact - even if it’s unintentional

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19
Q

Sternberg et al., (1981) investigated Layperson theories of intelligence.

In experiment 1, they gathered 186 people (61 library studying, 63 supermarket, 62 train waiting)

They were asked to list behaviours which were characteristics of:
* intelligence
* academic intelligence
* everyday intelligence
* unintelligence

In experiment 2, 122 people were asked to rate the behaviour list from exp 1 on how well they reflect aspects of intelligence.

Using the data, 3 dimensions of intelligence were found. What are they?

A
  • Practical Problem Solving
  • Verbal Ability
  • Social Competence **doesn’t show up again in a Western context
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20
Q

practical problem solving

A
  • analyse
  • reasoned decision-making
  • flexible thinking
  • effective solutions
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21
Q

verbal ability

A
  • good vocab
  • confident use
  • communicate effectively
  • good reading comprehension
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22
Q

social competence

A
  • good knowledge of themselves and others
  • can use this knowledge to successfully navigate relationships
  • good interpersonal skills
  • good balance of independence and interdependence
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23
Q

When this study was repeated in the later 80s, different categories were found with lots of overlap and new categories about the way of thinking and reasoning. What were these?

A
  • practical problem solving
  • verbal ability
  • intellectual balance and integration
  • goal orientation and attainment
  • contextual intelligence
  • fluid thinking
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24
Q

practical problem solving

A

effective and successful solving problems

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25
Q

Verbal ability

A
  • convo fluency
  • good vocal
  • reading ability
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26
Q

Intelligence balance and integration

A
  • making connections between topics and concepts
  • identify differences
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27
Q

Goal Orientation & Attainment

A
  • able to plan actions and efforts to meet a goal
  • high achieving
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28
Q

contextual intelligence

A
  • able to learn from experiences
  • understand and interpret current environment
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29
Q

fluid thoughts

A
  • quick thinking
  • thorough grasp of topics
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30
Q

what characteristic is missing from the 1980s updated version

A

there is no connection to social competence

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31
Q

how do cultural attitudes differ?

A

reflects what is culturally valued

  • cultural differences usually rooted in which aspects of intelligence are most valued with a culture (Valencia & Suzuki, 2011)
  • often result of deeply rooted philosophies
  • often considered abstract concepts -> important to remember that there will still be individual differences and subcultural differences
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32
Q

why is intelligence not a certain model universally?

A

what is considered intelligence in one environment may not be considered or as easily translatable to another -> it can be difficult to explain and transfer between different languages and cultural ideas, especially when intelligence is very abstract

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33
Q

what influences Western views of intelligence?

A
  • Aristotle & Plato
  • Greco-Judeo-Christian heritage
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34
Q

what influences Eastern views of intelligence?

A
  • Taoist
  • Confucian
  • Buddhist
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35
Q

Plato and Aristotle philosophical influence..

A

Intelligence is explicitly linked to humans
-> in their ideas REASON = INTELLIGENCE

There are three souls of the natural world.

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36
Q

What are the three souls of the natural world as described by Plato and Aristotle?

A
  • Vegetative Soul (linked to plants)
  • Sensitive Soul (linked to animals capable of movement)
  • Intellectual Soul (linked to humans)
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37
Q

What two types of reasoning does Plato and Aristotle use?

A

Discursive (slow and deductive)

Intuitive (Fast and Non-Deductive)

38
Q

What did they say that goes against layperson theory

A
  • intelligence was just reason
    -> memory, sensory perception and imagination were not part of intelligence (instead separate)
39
Q

Why was the sensory soul, sensory perception and cognitive ability were not equated to intelligence

A

Intelligence was only a human attribute whereas sensitive soul, sensory perception etc are linked to animals

40
Q

How does this relate to Sternberg?

A

Can see the influence in the ideas here -> specifically the influence of reasoning in our ideas of what intelligence is

41
Q

what is considered important in Western cultures?

A
  • speed / depth of mental processing
  • verbal abilities
  • emphasis on learning
  • good memory
  • good cognitive skills
42
Q

What does Eastern Phisophers focus on?

A

greater emphasis on connection with others and how important that is

43
Q

Confucius (551-479 AD) [Eastern Philosophical Influence]

A
  • Love each other, honour parents
  • Do the right thing not what is advantageous
  • Intelligence through benevolence
44
Q

Taoists [Eastern Philosophical Influence]

A
  • Humility
  • Freedom from conventional judgements
  • Ability to perceive and response to changes
  • show full awareness of oneself and the world around us
45
Q

Yang & Sternberg (1997) looked to explore whether these philosophical influences have had an influence on layperson ideas of intelligence, they asked descriptors from 68 Taiwanese Chinese people from various backgrounds; 434 individuals were then asked to rate the descriptors (half undergrads / half non-students)

5 Aspects of Intelligence emerged. What were they?

A
  • General Cognitive Factor Intellgence
  • Interpersonal Intelligence
  • Intrapersonal Intelligence
  • Intellectual Self-Assertions
  • Intellectual Self-Effacement
46
Q

What is the difference between Eastern compared to Western views of Intelligence

A

eastern has more emphasis in the connection of other people and how intelligence may be drawn from that

47
Q

general cognitive factor intelligence

A

similar to the idea of having good ability for practical problem solving

48
Q

Interpersonal Intelligence

A

relating to others harmoniously

49
Q

Intrapersonal Intelligence

A
  • self-awareness
  • ability to assess the self objectively
50
Q

Intellectual Self-Assertion

A
  • confidence
  • awareness of intelligence
  • gain self-worth from this awareness
51
Q

Intellectual self-effacement

A

modest about intellectual ability

52
Q

what are some buddhist and hindu traditions

A
  • waking up
  • noticing
  • recognising
  • understanding
  • comprehending
  • determination
  • mental effort
  • feeling & opinions
53
Q

Bara & Das (2004) looked at some layperson thoughts of intelligence, what did they find?

A
  • high-level thinking
  • judgment
  • decision-making
  • emphasis on the way that these aspects connect and are achieved through self-awareness (intra-personal consideration)
  • how others present their modesty, appreciation and politeness to those around them and the connect to something beyond them
54
Q

what is considered important in Eastern cultures?

A
  • similar ideas (decision-making, fluid thinking) to western cultures
  • But they apply not just to the individual
  • extend to social, historical and spiritual aspects of everyday life (connections outside themselves)
55
Q

what is an individualistic culture?

A
  • usually associated with western culture
  • focus on the primacy of the individual
56
Q

what is a collectivist culture?

A
  • usually associated with eastern culture
  • focus collective nature of social obligation
57
Q

When comparing views of intelligence between Malay and Australian students, what differences did they find? [Gill & Keats, 1980s]

A

Australian ->
* academic acumen
* adaptability to new situations
(note: no social connection)

Malay ->
* adaptability
* speed
* creativity of problem solving
* prize both social & cognitive characteristics

58
Q

What are some similarities found between Chinese and Australian individuals?

A
  • willingness to think / observe
  • wide range of interests
  • independent thinking
59
Q

What is the main difference between Chinese and Australian students?

A

Chinese students have social confidence (connection with other things and the world around them / how you re presenting your intelligence to other people)

60
Q

what are some differences when comparing the implicit views of intelligence between Chinese and Australian individuals?

A

Chinese -> Ability to Learn / Analytical Ability / Sharp Thinking / Displaying Confidence

Australian -> Logical Reasoning / Problem Solving

61
Q

Layperson theories across cultures

A
  • look at the diagram -> I don’t actually know if it’s needed lol
62
Q

When looking at Costa and Faria research about fixed and malleable theories and how these leads to attainment. How may this change across cultures / locations?

A

Eastern Continents: positive association between flexible ideas and attainment

Europe: positive association between fixed beliefs and attainment

North America: negative association between fixed beliefs and attainment

63
Q

Lim, Plucker & Im (2002) looked at whether there was a reduction in cross-cultural differences. They got 384 adults, similar to the methods of Sternberg where they took a list of behaviours from Korean Participants and got another group to rate the behaviours / characteristics.

They found 5 aspects of intelligence emerge. What were these?

A
  • Social Competence (manage social situations and relationships well)
  • Problem-solving abilities (effective and successful and solving problems)
  • Coping with Novelty (able to quickly and effectively manage new situations and information)
  • Self-Management (able to reflect on actions / manage emotions)
  • Practical Competence (able to confidently tackle tasks and challenges a systematic and effective manner)
64
Q

What can we conclude from Korean Intelligence?

A

social competence is only one of the aspects
* a lot focus around problem solving -> more emphasis on attributes traditionally held in Western cultures (i.e. globalisation and these differences are just reducing)
* most participants found social competence as the aspect which had more value -> different cultural influence coming in from somewhere

65
Q

Why might views on intelligence be changing within Korea?

A

the use of Western intelligence tests
* with increasing internationalisation, are layperson theories of intelligence converging across cultures

66
Q

In Lim et al. (2002) findings, which dimension of intelligence did Korean participants value most?

A

Social Competence

67
Q

What can implicit theories lead to?

A

more formalised theories

68
Q

what can implicit theories unconsciously build up?

A

bias

69
Q

Where do most of our formal theories come from?

A

Western perceptives
* which isn’t a bad thing but this has not always been acknowledged with ideas applied universally

70
Q

what other factors should we consider, if not just culture

A

race, gender, ability, socio-economic status

71
Q

what are two ways in which formalise approaches?

A

developing measures and theories

72
Q

what’s an issue with old theorists?

A

contribute a focus on testing but not theory development
* measuring didn’t get to grips of what intelligence is instead they were just building from implicit ideas

73
Q

who looked at the theory of intelligence more systematically

A

spearman

74
Q

Who was Galton (-1865)?

A
  • forefather of intelligence testing
  • view intelligence as measurable and based on biological factors
  • 1st to suggest human being differ on intelligence
  • influenced by plato, Aristotle and Darwin
  • viewed intelligence as measurable and based on biological factors (heritability -> physical entity)
  • intelligence is the ability to reason and respond to a large range of experiences through the senses
75
Q

what did Galton hereditary work explicitly link to?

A

eugenics

76
Q

eugenics

A

reproductive selection process within humans that aims to create children with desirable traits

77
Q

positive eugenics

A

encouraging reproduction in those who are perceived to have superior traits

78
Q

negative eugenics

A

discouraging or eliminating reproduction in those perceived to have poor hereditary traits

79
Q

Who was Binet (-1904)?

A
  • father of IQ testing (considered the basis for the future -> developed a scale specifically aimed at being an educational tool to identify children who needed a bit of extra school support)
  • viewed intelligence as malleable
  • developed Binet-Simon scale of intelligence
  • developed the concept of mental age and created age norms to compare to -> to decide whether individuals needed extra support
80
Q

Why was Alfred Binet actually considerate?

A
  • highlights bad critical thinking of his contemporaries
  • viewed his test as a practical tool
  • clear intelligence was too complex to capture in one test or number
  • intelligence not a single scalable entity
  • wanted to avoid the logical error of: if something has a name, it must be an entity or a being that has an independent existence of its own
  • did not want his tool to indefinitely reflect / label a person intelligence
81
Q

Binet put forward 3 cardinal principals that needed to be considered when using / developing his tool. What were they?

A
  1. test scores are for practical purposes -> did not link to a theory and do not define anything innate or permanent -> cannot explicitly link the scale to intelligence
  2. scale is rough, empirical guide for identifying children who need support -> cannot use to rank all children
  3. low scores indicate support is needed, not that a child is innately incapable
82
Q

Who were Goddard & Terman (-1910s)?

A
  • first to recognise the need for represenatative samples to create norms -> introducing standardisation
  • built on Godard’s work to being Binet’s scale on the US
  • Terman revised scale by adding new items, establishing new age norms -> Stanford-Binet Scale produced
  • popularised term IQ
  • IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
83
Q

What does IQ mean?

A

Intelligence Quotient

84
Q

Who ignored many of Binet’s contemporary points and had such an absence of critical thinking?

A

Goddard and Terman

85
Q

How do you calculate IQ (according to Goddard and Terman)?

A

(mental age/chronological age) x 100

86
Q

How did Goddard and Terman have an absence of critical thinking?

A
  • ignored Binet’s critically considered cardinal principles
  • Goddard & Terman considered and used the scale as something that captured a single, innate entity which they saw as intelligence
  • but currently strong theory to say what an entity is and Binet explicitly said his theory could not be used for this -> no expert consensus either
  • Goddard wanted to use this scale to categorise American society and even use it as part of the immigration process -> ideas Terman was building on
  • used their ideas and measures to influence American education policy arguing schools needed to be segregated to train efficient workers
  • Ableism and Racism -> Terman believed African-Amercans, Mexicans, Spanish Indian facilities showed low intelligence using his measure
87
Q

There was no consensus on exactly what intelligence was at this time -> but here they aimed to bring them together to collate what intelligence was. You need to be really clear about what the small differences are when you’re making impacts on the real world -> so in the Social Issue of the Journal of Education 1921 they brought together experts to collate expert ideas on what intelligence was.

What did they say?

A

Thorndike: power of good responses from the viewpoint of truth and facts

Terman: ability to carry on abstract thinking

Thurstone: ability to inhibit instinctive adjustments

88
Q

How many opinions were there about intelligence in 1921?

A

14

89
Q

Who was Yerkes (-1917)?

A

-> wasn’t building on anything strong because there was no conceptualised theory or anything - instead built on the test
* adapted Stanford-Binet scale to support WW1 efforts
* adapted 1:1 procedure to a group testing procedure to save time
* thought using it within army recruitment would help assignments
* developed army alpha and army beta test

90
Q

Who was spearman?

A

first person to put together a more comprehensive theory of intelligence -> still comes from a Western context though but it’s a more formal consideration of a theory that we can build on

91
Q

Sternberg repeated the 1921 exercise in 1986 asking 24 experts. They found that no ones definition offered:

A
  • adaptability
  • abstract thinking
  • adjustment to environment
  • knowledge capacity
  • independence
  • originality

social, personality and individual differences 2 (20 decks)

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