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BVSc2 AD1 > Immunology > Flashcards

Immunology Flashcards

1
Q

What is immunopathology?

A

Tissue damage caused by excessive immune response

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2
Q

What do most immune cells arise from?

A

Bone marrow

pluripotent haematopoietic stem cell

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3
Q

what do bone marrow stem cells differentiate into?

A

Lymphoid progenitors

Myeloid progenitors

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4
Q

What arise from lymphoid progenitors?

A

B cells, T cells and NK cells

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5
Q

What arise from myeloid progenitors?

A 
Macrophages 
phagocytes
platelets
mast cells
etc.
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6
Q

What is innate immunity?

A

non specific recognition

no memory

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7
Q

What is adaptive immunity?

A

Specific recognition of foreign material

Generation of memory

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8
Q

What cells are involved in innate immunity?

A

Phagocytes
mast cells
Natural killer cells

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9
Q

What cells are phagocytes?

A

Macrophages
neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils

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10
Q

What cells are involved in adaptive immunity?

A

Lymphocytes

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11
Q

What cells are lymphocytes?

A

T cells
B cells
Immunoglobulins/antibodies
Antigen presenting cells

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12
Q

What cells are antigen presenting cells?

A

Dendritic cells
Macrophages
B cells

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13
Q

What are dendritic cells derived from?

A

Both lymphoid and myeloid progenitors

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14
Q

What do dendritic cells do?

A

Activates the adaptive immune response

link the innate and adaptive immune systems

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15
Q

What are humoral components?

A

Soluble factors
eg. complement system
acute phase proteins
interferons

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16
Q

What do macrophages do?

A

Kill intracellular pathogens

raise alarm following infection

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17
Q

WHat do neutrophils do?

A

Kill rapidly dividing bacteria

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18
Q

What do eosinophils do?

A

Kill parasites

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19
Q

What do natural killer cells do?

A

Kill virus infected cells

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20
Q

What do interferons do?

A

Activate cells to produce antiviral proteins

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21
Q

What does the complement system do?

A

Coats pathogens in antigens for recognition

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22
Q

What does opsonises mean?

A

Enhances phagocytosis

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23
Q

What cells only have one nucleus?

A

Monocytes

Macrophages

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24
Q

What cells are polymorphonucleated?

A

Neutrophils
Basophils
Eosinophils

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25
Q

How do phagocytes activate the innate immune system?

A

Take up antigens
are activated and Travel to lymph nodes
Activate naive T cells

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26
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

Take in bacterua

granules fuse and digest bacteria

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27
Q

What are epitopes?

A

The part of the antigen that the immune system is targeting

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28
Q

What is a hapten?

A

Joins with a carrier protein molecule to form an epitope which the immune system can bind to

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29
Q

What is an immunogen?

A

A substance which induces an immune response when injected into an individual

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30
Q

What is an adjuvant?

A

A substance which enhances the immune response when combined with antigen

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31
Q

What are examples of adjuvants?

A

Oil and water
peanut oil
Liposomes
Cytokines

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32
Q

What are the different regions of an immunoglobulin?

A

Constant domain
variable domain
hypervariable domain

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33
Q

Which immunoglobulin has 5 y shaped units?

A

IgM

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34
Q

What is the main Ig in secondary immune response?

A

IgG

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35
Q

What is IgA used for?

A

Mucosal immune defence in gut

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36
Q

What is IgE involved in?

A

Allergies

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37
Q

Where is IgD found?

A

On immature B lymphocytes

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38
Q

What is the word for multiple Ig binding sites?

A

Avidity

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39
Q

Where are the primary sites of immune system development?

A

Bone marrow
Thymus
Ileal peyers patch
Bursa of Fabricus

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40
Q

Where are the secondary sites of immune system development?

A

Lymph nodes

spleen

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41
Q

What occurs in the bone marrow?

A

Origin of T and B lymphocytes

Site of B cell maturation

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42
Q

What is the ileal peyers patch

A

The site of B cell maturation in most animal species

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43
Q

Where is the ileal peyers patch/

A

In the small intestine

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44
Q

What is the site of B cell maturation in birds?

A

Bursa of fabricus

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45
Q

Where is the bursa of fabricus located?

A

near the cloaca

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46
Q

What occurs at the thymus

A

T cell development

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47
Q

What produce growth factors in teh thymus?

A

Hassalls corpuscle

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48
Q

Where are the B cells located in the lymph nodes?

A

In the follicles in the cortex

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49
Q

Where are the T cells located in the lymph nodes?

A

In the paracortex

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50
Q

What are the different areas of the lymph node follicles?

A

Germinal centre

mantle zone

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51
Q

Where are the lymphocytes located in the spleen>

A

In the white pulp

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52
Q

What are the uncapsulated lymphoid tissue?

A

mucosa associated lymphoid tissues

mucosal surfaces which are in contact with the outside environment

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53
Q

What is an activated lymphocyte called?

A

Lymphoblast

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54
Q

What do T cells express?

A

T cell receptors

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55
Q

What do B cells express?

A

Surface membrane immunoglobulins

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56
Q

What does homing mean?

A

Lymphocytes move to sites of infection

different mucosal system areas attract same lymphocytes

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57
Q

What are T killer cells called?

A

CD8+ T cells

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58
Q

What do CD8 T cells do?

A

Kill infected cells

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59
Q

What are T helper cells called?

A

CD4+ T cells

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60
Q

What do CD4 T regulatory cells do?

A

Inhibit immune responses so it doesnt damage healthy tissue

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61
Q

What do CD4 TH1 cells do?

A

Activate macrophages

target bacteria

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62
Q

What do CD4 TH2 cells do?

A

Switch B cell production to IgE

Target parasites

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63
Q

WWhat do CD4 TH17 cells do?

A

enhance neutrophil response

Target fungi

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64
Q

What do T cells recognise?

A

T cell receptors recognise small peptide fragments bound to the major histocompatibility complex at the cell surface

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65
Q

What type of T cells see epitodes presented by class 1 MHC?

A

CD8+ T cells

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66
Q

What cells are MHC class 1 found on?

A

Nucleated cells

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67
Q

What type of antigens do MHC class 1 molecules present?

A

Endogenous/cytosolic antigens

usually viral proteins from inside the cell

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68
Q

What cells see epitodes presented by class 2 MHC?

A

CD 4+ helper cells

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69
Q

What are MHC class 2 found on?

A

Antigen presenting cells

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70
Q

What type of antigens do MHC class 2 molecules present?

A

Exogenous antigens

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71
Q

Peptide fragments are longer in which MHC?

A

MHC class 2

72
Q

What are exogenous antigens degraded in?

A

ENdocytic vesicles using a low pH

73
Q

What present lipid antigens?

A

CD1

74
Q

What induces cells to express MHC class 2?

A

Interferon gamma cytokine

75
Q

How do dendritic cells target pathogens?

A

Phagocytosis - ingest antigens
Macropinocytosis - engulf non specific fluid
use pattern recognition receptors to recognise pathogen

76
Q

What are immature conventional dendritic cells called?

A

Langerhans cells

77
Q

What are PRRs?

A

receptors on dendritic cells whcih recognise PAMPS

78
Q

WHat are PAMPS?

A

Pattern associated molecular patterns

they are nucleic acid motifs

79
Q

WHat are cytokines?

A

soluble factors wich bind to specific receptors on cells to alter their function

80
Q

What are chemokines?

A

Chemotactic recruitment of cells from blood into the tissue

81
Q

What is the main enzyme produced in the complement cascade?

A

C3 convertase

82
Q

What triggers the complement cascade?

A

Pattern recognition trigger

the complex between the antibody and the antigen

83
Q

What happens after the complement cascade is triggered?

A

C1 units attach to the antibody - q then r then s

84
Q

What does C 1 act on?

A

C4 and C2

85
Q

What occurs after C4 and C2 are activated?

A

They split into two fragments - a and b

86
Q

What creates C3 convertase?

A

The halves of C2 and C4 joining together - C2a and C4b

87
Q

What action does C3 do?

A

Attaches to the surface of the antigen

Splits C3 into 2

88
Q

What is C5 convertase made up of?

A

C3 convertase (C2a and C4b) and C3b

89
Q

What are the consequences of complement system activation?

A

Inflammation
Opsonisation - helps bind to phagocytic cells
Immune complexes adherence to erythrocytes for clearance
Cytolysis - killing cells

90
Q

What does C5 do?

A

Creates the membrane attack complex

91
Q

What does the MAC do?

A

Creates holes in the membrane

causes osmotic lysis

92
Q

How is the complement cascade controlled?

A

C1 inhibitor
membrane proteins to breakdown C3 convertase
CD59

93
Q

What does CD59 do?

A

Prevent formation of MAC on normal cells

94
Q

What are MHC genes?

A

Genes that code for major histocompatibility complexes

95
Q

What make MHC good at targeting pathogens?

A

Polymorphic - different alleles specific to an individual
Polygenic - individuals have several different ones
Able to present multiple different peptides

96
Q

How are MHCs inherited?

A

two sets of MHC alleles from mother and father

codominant expression - all are expressed

97
Q

What is the cause of graft rejection?

A

Alloreactivity - immune system reacts to never seen before allogeneic MHC

98
Q

What are other problems with MHC?

A

Affect disease susceptibility

Cause resistance and production traits

99
Q

What does recognition of the peptide-MHC complexes require?

A

Two receptors on the T cells:
T cell receptor
Co receptor CD4 or CD8

100
Q

What does the CD4/8 coreceptor bind to?

A

Lck signalling molecule which activates the T cell

101
Q

What may be a cause of autoimmunity?

A

T cell crossreactivity

102
Q

What is T cell crossreactivity?

A

Where one TCR can recognise lots of MHC

103
Q

What is somatic recombination?

A

Where genes are rearranged to generate TCR diversity

104
Q

What is immune deviation?

A

Where immune responses are polarised towards Th1 or Th2

they are mutually antigonistic

105
Q

What is Th1 cell immunity?

A

Produce interferon gamma
inhibits Th2 cells
causes CD8 cytotoxic T cell mediated immunity

106
Q

What is Th2 cell immunity?

A

Produce IL-4 and IL-13

causes humoral immunity - primarily antibodies

107
Q

What do CD8 cytotoxic T cells target?

A

They kill target cells which have specific MHC1

108
Q

How do CD8 T cells kill their target cells?

A

Perforin - pores
Granzymes - apoptosis
close adhesion to target cells

109
Q

What are the mechanisms of cytolysis?

A

Tight junctions are formed
Cytotoxic granules are polarised to the site of tight junctions
Fas and fas ligand interact to activate apoptosis

110
Q

What activates natural killer cells?

A

Interferon alpha

111
Q

What do natural killer cells do?

A

Release lytic granules of perforin and granzymes which kill virus infected cells

112
Q

What activates natural killer cells?

A

when the target cell has altered/down regulated MHC1

MHC1 inhibits NK cells

113
Q

What is antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity?

A

Fc receptors on NK cells bind to antibodies attached to the target cell
this kills target cell

114
Q

Where are gamma delta T cells found?

A

Mucocutaneous surfaces - innate immune system

115
Q

How does T cell therapy work?

A

Isolate T cells
modify to express different receptors
use vectors to encode DNA
They activate and kill target cells better eg. cancer

116
Q

How do B cells identify antigens?

A

T cell dependent
Large conformational determinants or epitopes bind
Co stimulation
Cytokine production

117
Q

what antibodies do virgin B cells express?

A

IgM and IgD

118
Q

What happens when a B cell is activated?

A

Becomes a lymphoblast
Ig change to IgG, IgA or IgE
Express more MHC2
proliferate and differentiate

119
Q

What is the summary of antibody production?

A

Antigen presenting cell picks up an antigen
It presents the antigen to the T helper cell via MHC2
This stimulates a T helper cell response
The B cell has engaged with the antigen but needs the T helper cell to fully activate
This causes the B cell to activate and differentiate into a plasma cell
The plasma cell can then pump out the antibody needed for immunity

120
Q

Where are B cells activated?

A

Germinal centres of secondary lymphoid tissue

121
Q

What area of the antibody determines what type it is?

A

The heavy chain contast region

genes

122
Q

How is the change of antibodies achieved in B cells?

A

Gene rearrangement

then theyre transcribed, RNA spliced, translated and expressed

123
Q

How is B cell receptor diversity achieved?

A

Somatic mutation and gene conversion

124
Q

What is affinity maturation?

A

When B cells with high affinity receptors for the epitopes are selected as immune response matures and antigen conc decreases

125
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

A single species of high affinity antibody for one specific epitope

126
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies used for?

A

Allergy diagnosis
cancer treatment
block viral infection
treat autoimmunity

127
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies made?

A 
Immunise mouse
activates many B cells
remove spleen
nuclear material added to make immortal B cells
dilute 
expand
harvest
128
Q

What are mechanisms of immunosuppression?

A

Antigens used up
Antibody mediated suppression
Immune complexes release PGE2
Bound antibodies inhibit each other

129
Q

What hormone causes immunosupression?

A

Cortisol - stress

also balance of hormones eg pregnancy

130
Q

WHat are supressor T cells?

A

CD4+

regulate the balance of Th1 v Th2

131
Q

What cytokine is produced by Tr1 cells which is an induced supressor?

A

IL-10

132
Q

What is a natural immune supressor?

A

CD4+ CD25+ T reg

133
Q

What is hypersensitivity?

A

Sensitisation to a specific antigen by repeated exposure causes an excessive immune response

134
Q

What is a type one hypersensitivity?

A

Immediate

135
Q

What is a type two hypersensitivity?

A

Antibody dependent

136
Q

What is a type 3 hypersensitivity?

A

Immune complex

137
Q

What is a type 4 hypersensitivity?

A

Cell mediated or delayed type hypersensitivity

138
Q

What is type 1 hypersensitivity caused by?

A

Allergens cause development of allergen specific IgE

139
Q

What is IgE usually found bound to?

A

FcERI in mast cells and basophils

140
Q

What are the two stages of type one hypersensitivity?

A
  1. sensitisation

2. hypersensitivity

141
Q

What occurs in stage 2 of type one hypersensitivity?

A

Allergen cross links IgE

this causes mast cell degranulation and an inflammatory reaction

142
Q

What is a systemic type 1 hypersensitivity called?

A

Anaphylaxis

143
Q

What is the hygiene hypothesis in relation to type 1 hypersensitivity reactions?

A

Repeated infection as a child induces bystander suppression - increase in T regulatory cells

144
Q

What is type 2 hypersensitivity triggered by?

A

Production of antibody that can bind to a target cell and cause opsonisation, lysis and antibody dependent cytotoxicity

145
Q

What are two examples of type 2 hypersensitivity?

A

Blood transfusion reactions

antibody mediated autoimmune diseases - eg destroying own RBCs

146
Q

What is sometimes called type 5 hypersensitivity?

A

Anti receptor antibodies

147
Q

What happens in a type 5 hypersensitivity reaction?

A

Immune system targets receptor

antibodies bind to the receptor and accidentally have a stimulatory or inhibitory effect

148
Q

What is an example of type 5 hypersensitivity?

A

Graves disease

mimics thyroid stimulating hormone so excess thyroid hormone produced

149
Q

What are the two different types of type 3 hypersensitivity?

A

Antigen excess

Antibody excess

150
Q

What occurs during antibody excess in type 3 hypersensitivity?

A

Sensitisation causes excessive IgG response

local exposure to allergen causes local inflammatory response

151
Q

Where is type 3 hypersensitivity most common?

A

In the respiratory tract

152
Q

What occurs during antigen excess in type 3 hypersensitivity?

A

Sensitisation leads to circulating antibody

exposure to antigen causes small soluble immune complexes in the blood

153
Q

What are the consequences of type 3 hypersensitivity antigen excess?

A

Vasculitis
Complement activation
Inflammation

154
Q

WHere does antigen excess occur?

A

Areas of high turbulence and high blood pressure

eg. renal glomeruli

155
Q

What cells are involved in type 4 hypersensitivity?

A

Mononuclear cells and cytokine

156
Q

What triggers type 4 hypersensitivity?

A

Contact allergy

157
Q

What is different about type 4 hypersensitivity?

A

Delayed in onset 24 to 72 hrs

158
Q

What is immune tolerance?

A

Failure of the immune systme to respond to an antigen

159
Q

What is neonatal tolerance?

A

Where shared placental circulation develops tolerance to alloantigens

160
Q

WHat is oral tolerance?

A

Failure to respond systemically to antigen previously given orally
supresses immune responses

161
Q

What is self tolerance?

A

immune system doesnt recognise self antigens

162
Q

What is autoimmunity?

A

Failure of self tolerance

activation of autoreactive cells

163
Q

What are triggers of autoimmunity?

A

Genetics
age
gender - females predisposed
environmental triggers

164
Q

What is molecular mimicry?

A

Where the pathogenic antigen might actival T cells which are also autoreactive

165
Q

How does the embryonic immune system develop?

A 
Thymus develops - t cells
spleen and bone marrow develop - b cells
first trimester - lymphocytes can respond
complement develops
can make blood antibodies by day 100
166
Q

What type of placentation is in dogs and cats?

A

Endotheliochorial placentation

small amount of IgG passes

167
Q

What type of placentation is in ruminants?

A

Syndesmochorial placentation

No Ig transfer

168
Q

What barriers are present in syndesmochorial placentation

A

Uterine connective tissue
Maternal endothelium
Chorionic epithelium

169
Q

What type of placentation is in horses and pigs>

A

Epitheliochorial placentation

No Ig transfer possible

170
Q

What barriers are in epitheliochorial placentation?

A 
4 layers
Uterine epithelium
Uterine connective tissue
Maternal endothelium
Chorionic epithelium
171
Q

What is the main Ig in ruminant milk?

A

IgG

172
Q

WHat is the main Ig in non ruminant milk?

A

IgA

173
Q

How is neonatal vaccination done?

A

Various times so colostral antibodies dont interfere

174
Q

What is neonatal isoerythrolysis?

A

When colostrum contains antibodies against neonates own erythrocytes
causes anaemia

175
Q

What causes neonatal isoerythrolysis?

A

Dam sensitised to the sire erythrocytes antigens

176
Q

Why do cats get neonatal isoerythrolysis?

A

Type B cats have anti A

type A/AB kittens from a type B queen develop it

BVSc2 AD1 (12 decks)

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