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Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology > Immune system > Flashcards

Immune system Flashcards

1
Q

Life is an arms race as…

A

…species compete for resources- both parties are evolving but one party can evolve MUCH faster

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2
Q

Types of extracellular worms?

A

Guinea worm
Hook worm
(Humans become infected with humans and animal worms)

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3
Q

WHat are multicellular eukaryote worms known as?

A

helminths

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4
Q

Types of Protozoa?

A

1) Plasmodium spp
- Malaria
- Resistance develops in endemic regions

2) Leishmania spp
- Leishmaniasis
- Found worldwide, including europe.

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5
Q

Type of fungi infection?

A

1) Candida albicans
- Oral candidiasis
2) Dermatophyte infection
- Ring worm
- Found worldwide
- Tinea pedis
- Tinea corporis

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6
Q

Tinea corporis affects…

A

…arms and legs

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7
Q

Tinea pedis affects…

A

… feet (athletes foot)

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8
Q

Candidiasis can affect…

A

…genital regions

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9
Q
A
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10
Q

Types of bacterial infection?

A

1) Staphylococcus aureus
- Impetigo
- Usually occurs after a cut / burn
- Very common in school children
2) Syphillis
- Treponema
- Sexually transmitted

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11
Q

Types of viruses?

A

1) Epstein-Barr virus
- Herpesviridae
- Infectious mononucleosis
- Usually acquired in childhood
- Later infection can be more severe
2) Mumps virus
- Paramyxoviridae
- Included in UK vaccination schedule
- Causes pain and swelling of salivary glands

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12
Q

Why we need an immune system

A
  • To recognise ‘self’ that is damaged or altered
  • Altered self can indicate the cell is dying or likely to become cancerous
  • The immune system recognises this and destroys it
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13
Q

Pathogens have diverse infection methods and lifecycles which vary in…

A
  • Complexity (multicellular vs viruses)
  • Infection route (skin contact/sexually transmitted/airborne)
  • Pathogenicity (fatal in all cases vs only symptomatic if immunocompromised)
  • Location of infection (intracellular/extracellular)
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14
Q

The mammalian immune system can be split into …

A

…two branches (innate and adaptive)

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15
Q

Speed of innate immune system?

A

Rapid or instant

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16
Q

innate immune system is comprised of…

A

…physical and cell based mechanisms

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17
Q

Speed of adaptive immune system?

A

Slower to have effect

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18
Q

The adaptive immune system forms…

A

…‘memory’ of previous pathogens

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19
Q

What branch of the immune system is effective at birth?

A

innate

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20
Q

What branch of the immune system is ineffective at birth?

A

adaptive

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21
Q

The innate immune system does not involve what?

A

Specific recognition of a microbe

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22
Q

What does the innate immune system act against?

A

Acts against all microbes in the same way (targets common components of pathogens (PAMPs and DAMPs).

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23
Q

What does the adaptive immune response involve?

A

Involves specific recognition of a microbe

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24
Q

The adaptive immune response involves a specific ___ to a specific ___

A

The adaptive immune response involves a specific response to a specific microbe (targets unique components of pathogens)

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25
Q

The adaptive immune response produces cells which respond to…

A

…everything

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26
Q

Produces cells which respond to EVERYTHING! Then deletes the cells which …

A

…would damage healthy self

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27
Q

Whats the first line in innate immunity?

A

1) Physical barriers

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28
Q

Types of physical barriers?

A
  • Skin
  • Intact mucous membranes
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29
Q

Cells of the immune system have…

A

… specific-complementary roles

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30
Q

Whats the 2nd line of defence?

A

Antimicrobial substances / processes / cells

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31
Q

How does the 2nd line of defense work?

A
  • Inflammation- increased blood flow to sites of damage allows increased numbers of immune cells to infiltrate tissue
  • Fever
  • Leukocytes (white cells)
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32
Q

Adaptive Immune system recognises…

A

…specific components of antigens

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33
Q

Where does the word antigen come from?

A

antibody generator

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34
Q

The adaptive immune system makes us of …

A

…lymphocytes

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35
Q

Our immune system prevents us from…

A

…getting viruses

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36
Q

Infection rates are much higher when the immune system is …

A

…compromised or immature

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37
Q

Many infections only occur when there is an…

A

…‘opportunity’ due to a specific factor

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38
Q

Pathogens have evolved ways of…

A

…evading the immune system

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39
Q

Some infections are cleared completely without …

A

…symptoms

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40
Q

Some infections are cleared after…

A

… a symptomatic period

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41
Q

Some infections are …

A

…persistent.

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42
Q

The adaptive immune system can learn from …

A

…experience.

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43
Q

The adaptive immune system can learn from experience.
- Sometimes this prevents …

A

…re-infection giving us immunity

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44
Q

The adaptive immune system can learn from experience.
- Sometimes this prevents re-infection giving us immunity.
- Or the infection is less …

A

…severe the second time / recover much faster

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45
Q

Three main functions of cells of the immune ystem?

A

1) direct killing of pathogen-by phagocytosis or release of cytotoxic agents
2) releasing chemicals (cytokines and chemokines) to recruit other immune cells
3) Activating T-cells by presenting foreign antigen to them (antigen presenting cells)

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46
Q

Innate immune cells respond in the ____ when triggered by signals which are not ____ for a particular pathogen.

A

Innate immune cells respond in the same way when triggered by signals which are not specific for a particular pathogen.

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47
Q

What can innate immune cells be activated by?

A

antibodies (immunoglobulins) or by contact with PAMPs or DAMPs

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48
Q

How do innate immune cells kill?

A

By degranulation or phagocytosis

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49
Q

What are the Innate immune cells?

A
  • Neutrophils
  • Eosinophils
  • Basophils
  • Mast cells
  • Monocytes
  • Macrophages
  • Natural killer cells
  • Dendritic cells
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50
Q

What do some innate immune cells release?

A

Chemicals to recruit other immune cells or increase vascular permeability

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51
Q

What do some innate immune cells present?

A

antigen to T cells

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52
Q

Function of neutrophil?

A

Phagocytosis and killing of microorganisms

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53
Q

Describe the nucleus of neutrophils?

A

Multilobed nucleus

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54
Q

Function of small lymphocyte?

A

Production of antibodies (B cells) or cytotoxic and helper functions (T cells)

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55
Q

What is a plasma cell?

A

Fully differentiated form of B cell that secretes antibodies.

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56
Q

Function of natural killer cells?

A

Kills cells infected with certain viruses.

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57
Q

Function of dendritic cell?

A

Activation of t cells and initiation of adaptive immune responses?

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58
Q

Function of monocyte?

A

Circulating precursor cell to macrophage

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59
Q

Function of macrophage?

A
  • Phagocytosis and killing of microorganisms.
  • Activation of t cells and initiation of immune responses.
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60
Q

Function of eosinophils?

A

Killing of antibody-coated parasites through release of granule contents.

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61
Q

Function of basophil?

A

Promotion of allergic responses and augmentation of anti-parasitic immunity.

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62
Q

Function of mast cell?

A

Expulsion of parasites from body through release of granules containing histamine and other active agents.

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63
Q

What are the commonest leucocyte?

A

Neutrophils

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64
Q

Neutrophils contain…

A

…granules full of numerous bactericidal substances (targets bacteria)

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65
Q

Neutrophils avidly…

A

…phagocytoses particles

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66
Q

Neutrophils bind avidly to which antibodies?

A

IgG antibodies which have bound to a pathogen (opsonisation).

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67
Q

WHat are IgG antibodies made by?

A

B cells.

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68
Q

How do neutrophils destroy pathogens?

A

engulfs the pathogen and destroys it

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69
Q

Eosinophils are a type of …

A

… leucocyte (white blood cell)

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70
Q

Eosinophils stain with…

A

…acidic dyes

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71
Q

Eosinophils make up…

A

…1-6% of white blood cells.

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72
Q

Eosinophils contain…

A

…a number of highly basic or ‘cationic’ proteins (antimicrobial).

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73
Q

Eosinophils are important in…

A

…killing larger multi cellular pathogens

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74
Q

Eosinophils are abundant as sites of…

A

…allergic reactions.

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75
Q

Eosinophils bind avidly to…

A

…IgE antibodies which are bound to exterior pathogens

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76
Q

Where are IgE antibodies released?

A

released at mucous membranes

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77
Q

Eosinophils are involved in…

A

…parasitic infections eg: helminths

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78
Q

In a helminth (worm) infection, eosinophils are attacking…

A

…a schistosome larva.

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79
Q

How important is schistomiasis?

A

After malaria 2nd most important tropical disease

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80
Q

Pathology of schistosomiasis caused by…

A

…human immune system-over reaction causes excessive inflammation

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81
Q

Basophils are leucocytes with…

A

…large granules that stain with basic dyes

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82
Q

The granules of basophils contain…

A
  • Heparin
  • Histamine & other vasoactive amines (cause vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels)
  • This why the condition will be itchy
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83
Q

Granules of basophils are released at…

A

…sites of inflammation.

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84
Q

Basophils released granules in…

A

…immediate hypersensitivity (allergic) reactions

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85
Q

Basophils bind to …

A

…IgE antibodies that have bound antigen

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86
Q

Basophils bind to IgE antibodies that have bound antigen.
- Then release…

A

…basophil granules

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87
Q

Mast cells are a …

A

…tissue cell

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88
Q

Mast cells are similar to…

A

…its circulating counter part, the basophil.

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89
Q

Upon stimulation, mast cells rapidly release…

A

…inflammatory mediators (recruiting other immune cells)

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90
Q

Monocytes are the largest…

A

…nucleated cell of the blood.

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91
Q

Size of monocytes?

A

16-20mm diameter

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92
Q

Monocytes develop into…

A

…macrophages when it migrates into the tissues.

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93
Q

What are macrophages?

A

A professional antigen presenting cell (APC)-presents antigen to T cells

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94
Q

Macrophages are the principal…

A

…resident phagocyte of the tissues.

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95
Q

Macrophages are strongly…

A

…phagocytic of particles and microbes

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96
Q

Phage means…

A

…eating

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97
Q

Macrophages have receptors for…

A

…antibodies

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98
Q

Types of macrophages?

A

CNS – “microglia”
Liver – “Kupffer cells”
Lungs – “alveolar macrophages”
Bone – “osteoclasts”

99
Q

Natural killer cells (NK cells) are a type of…

A

…lymphocyte

100
Q

Natural killer cells are a type of lymphocytes which recognises…

A

…‘self’ cells that have something wrong with them

101
Q

NK cells are able to kill…

A

…infected cells.

102
Q

NK cells kill…

A

…certain type of cancer cells.

103
Q

NK cells act independantly of…

A

…antigen presentation and recognition events required for cytotoxic T cell killing

104
Q

NK cells are microscopically distinguishable by…

A
  • Presence of large cytoplasmic granules
  • Large granular lymphocytes
105
Q

Dendritic Cells possess…

A

…long processes

106
Q

Dendrites means…

A

…fingers

107
Q

Dendritic cells have…

A

…membranous projections

108
Q

Dendritic cells have membranous projections which interlock with…

A

…lymphoid cells.

109
Q

Dendritic cells present…

A

… antigen to T cells- activating the T-cell

110
Q

Two types of dendritic cells…

A

1) Plasmacytoid DCs
2) Conventional DCs (aka myeloid DCs)

111
Q

Plasmacytoid DCs are found in…

A

…germinal centres within the lymph nodes

112
Q

Plasmacytoid DCs produce…

A

…huge amounts of type I interferon

113
Q

Conventional DCs (aka myeloid DCs) are present in…

A

…most organs.

114
Q

Conventional DCs (aka myeloid DCs) are abundant in…

A

…t-cell-rich areas of spleen and lymph node.

115
Q

Conventional DCs (aka myeloid DCs) present…

A

…antigen to T-cells.

116
Q

Role of dendritic cells in innate immunity?

A
  • Phagocytic cells
  • Like other cells they recognise pathogens through surface receptors and become ‘activated’
117
Q

Role of dendritic cells in adaptive immunity?

A
  • Phagocytise pathogens and display their antigen (presentation)
  • This activates the T & B cells
118
Q

B cells and T cells are…

A

…Adaptive immune cells.

119
Q

B cells and T cells are Adaptive immune cells. They have a …

A

…receptor for a specific epitope (one particular part of the antigen).

120
Q

B cells and T cells proliferate (clonal expansion) when …

A

…they encounter their antigen. Some of these cells will be long lived memory cells.

121
Q

B cells produce…

A

…antibodies, as surface receptors or secreted proteins (BCR)

122
Q

B cells produced how many classes of antibodies?

A

Five classes of antibody

123
Q

B cells recognise…

A

…extracellular pathogens.

124
Q

B cells are important for…

A

…passive immunity (eg. antivenom, breastmilk)

125
Q

T cells bear a …

A

… T cell receptor (TCR)

126
Q

T cells recognise…

A

…intracellular pathogens or malignant cells

127
Q

T cells only recognise antigens that have been…

A

…presented by an antigen presenting cell (APC)

128
Q

Size of T lymphocytes?

A

6-15μm diameter

129
Q

Two main subdivisions of T lymphocyte?

A
  • CD8 (cytotoxic T cells / Tc) – Kill infected cells / cancer cells
  • CD4 (helper T cells / Th) – Activate macrophages & Tc Cells
130
Q

B lymphocytes are derived from…

A

…bone marrow

131
Q

B Lymphocytes transform into…

A

… a plasma cells.

132
Q

A plasma cell is a lymphocyte in its…

A

…high-rate antibody secreting state

133
Q

Plasma cells are rarely seen in the…

A

…blood

134
Q

Plasma cells are found in…

A

…the spleen and lymph nodes.

135
Q

Plasma cells release…

A

…antibodies into circulation.

136
Q

The lymphatic system is a network of…

A

…vessels

137
Q

The lymphatic system conveys…

A

…extracellular tissue fluid

138
Q

The lymphatic system conveys extracellular tissue fluid as lymph via…

A

…the thoracic duct, back to the bloodstream.

139
Q

the lymphatic system consists of…

A

…fine, blind-ended lymphatic capillaries

140
Q

The lymphatic system consists of fine, blind-ended lymphatic capillaries…

A

…which unite to form lymphatic vessels

  • Vessels have valves to prevent backflow of lymph
141
Q

The lymphatic system has…

A

…3 primary functions.

142
Q

3 primary functions of the lymphatic system?

A

1) Drains excess interstitial fluid – Lymphatic vessels drain excess interstitial fluid from tissue spaces and return it to the blood
2) Transports dietary lipds – Lymphatic vessels transport lipids and lipid soluble vitamins (A, D, E & K) absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract
3) Carries out immune responses – Lymphatic tissue and lymphoid organs initiate a highly specific responses directed against particular microbes

143
Q

At various points along the vessels of the lymphatic system are…

A

…lymph nodes.

144
Q

where are lymph nodes located?

A

under arms, groin, neck.

145
Q

Lymph is similar in composition to plasma.
But contains…

A
  • Less protein
  • Some cells (mainly lymphocytes)
146
Q

Appearance of lymph?

A
  • Milky in appearance.
147
Q

When lymphatic vessels become inflamed they can sometimes be seen as …

A

…red streaks in the skin (lymphangitis).

148
Q

WHats blockage of the lymphatic system called?

A
  • Lymphatic filariasis
  • Elephantiasis of the legs and scrotum
149
Q

The Lymphoid Organs:

A

Bone Marrow
Thymus
Lymph nodes
Spleen
Adenoids and tonsils
Gut associated lymphoid tissue

150
Q

Primary lymphoid organs?

A
  • Bone marrow
  • Thymus
151
Q

Secondary lymphoid organs?

A
  • Adenoids
  • Tonsils
  • Lymph nodes
  • Spleen
  • Peyer’s patches
  • Appendix
152
Q

Bone marrow makes up…

A

…about 4% of an adult’s body mass

153
Q

Bone marrow is the major …

A

…haemopoietic organ

154
Q

Bone marrow is responsible for…

A

…formation of blood cells

  • Includes red & white blood cells
155
Q

Bone marrow releases…

A

…500 billion blood cells a day

156
Q

Bone marrow is primarily found in…

A

…cancellous (spongy) bone

157
Q

cancellous (spongy) bone is different to…

A

…compact (cortical) bone which is involved in support

158
Q

Spongy bone is highly…

A

…vascularised

159
Q

Where is cancellous spongy bone found?

A

Found at the ends of the long bones

160
Q

Examples of Cancellous bone?

A

Femur / Humerus / Tibia

161
Q

Example of flat bones?

A

Pelvis
Sternum
Cranium
Ribs & Vertebrae
Scapulae

162
Q

T cell precursors are called…

A

…thymocytes

163
Q

T cell precursors migrate from…

A

…the bone marrow to the thymus to mature.

164
Q

Mature T cells leave the…

A

…thymus and migrate to secondary lymphatic tissues.

165
Q

Mature T cells leave the thymus and migrate to secondary lymphatic tissues, where they may encounter…

A

…foreign antigen

166
Q

Where is thymus located?

A
  • Upper thorax
  • Above the heart
  • Behind the sternum
167
Q

Haematoxylin/eosin stained is made up of…

A

…many lobules

168
Q

Haematoxylin/eosin stained is surrounded by…

A

… a capsule

169
Q

Haematoxylin/eosin stained contain a…

A

…cortex / medulla

170
Q

Haematoxylin/eosin stained between lobules is a…

A

…septa

171
Q

SEM showing the …

A

…developing thymocytes

172
Q

Within the thymus there is…

A

…spherical cells.

173
Q

What is the interstices?

A

An extensive network of epithelial cells

174
Q

The thymocytes are dependent on …

A

.. the epithelial cells during development

175
Q

What do the lobules of the thymus show?

A
  • A lymphocyte dense outer cortex
  • An inner lighter-staining medulla
176
Q

The thymus has a…

A

…stromal framework

177
Q

The thymus has a stromal framework with…

A

…specialised epithelial cells (dendritic cells and macrophages (APCs)).

178
Q

Role of the thymus in the adaptive immune response?

A

Produces cells which respond to EVERYTHING! Then deletes the cells which would damage healthy-self

179
Q

role of cortex and medulla of thymus?

A

“educates” thymocytes.

180
Q

Cortex and medulla ‘educate’ thymocytes, causing them to become…

A

… mature competent T cells

181
Q

What percentage of T cells survive ‘education’ ?

A

1 to 3%

182
Q

Only 1 - 3% of T cells survive education, so theres massive ____ of the other cells.

A

Only 1 - 3% of T cells survive education, so theres massive apoptosis of the other cells.

183
Q

Only 1 - 3% of T cells survive education, so theres massive apoptosis of the other cells.

How do they die?

A

Macrophages phagocytose them without any concurrent inflammation.

184
Q

Mature T cells that aren’t dangerous to host tissue are released into the …

A

…peripheral circulation

185
Q

Mature T cells that aren’t dangerous to host tissue are released into the peripheral circulation.

Via….

A

… thymic medullary venules

186
Q

What is Thymic atrophy with age?

A
  • Fewer naïve (new, haven’t encountered antigen) T cells produced with increasing age
  • Reducing mass and function
187
Q

What is thymic atropy with age responsible for?

A

Responsible for poor responses of older people to flu vaccination.

188
Q

Which organ is the site of haematopoesis? Bone marrow or Thymus?

A

Bone marrow

189
Q

Which organ…Is the site of T-cell maturation?
Bone marrow or thymus?

A

Thymus

190
Q

So the primary lymphoid organs are the …

A

…bone marrow and thymus which make mature immune cells.

191
Q

What is the role of secondary lymphoid tissues?

A

They are tissues where lymphocytes come into contact with foreign antigens

192
Q

What happens to lymphocytes when they come into contact with foreign antigens in the secondary lymphoid tissues?

A
  • Cells are clonally expanded (divide repeatedly while maintaining their specificity).
  • Mature into effector cells.
  • Eg. lymph nodes and the spleen, MALT, NALT, BALT, and GALT
193
Q

T and B lymphocytes are unique in constantly recirculating between…

A

… blood and tissues

194
Q

T and B lymphocytes are unique in constantly recirculating between blood and tissues

  • Returning to blood via…
A

…lymph and secondary lymphoid tissue.

195
Q

Secondary lymph tissues enable…

A

…thorough mixing of T and B lymphocytes with Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs), especially those that may have recently encountered foreign antigens.

  • Providing maximum contact.
196
Q

What are APCs?

A

Antigen Presenting Cells

197
Q

Without 2o lymphoid tissues this contact would otherwise be …

A

… a rare event.

198
Q

Lymph nodes have an internal framework of …

A

…reticular fibres (type III collagen)

199
Q

Lymph nodes have an internal framework of reticular fibres (type III collagen).

These reticular fibres are suited to the attachment of…

A

…abundant lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells.

200
Q

What is a Germinal Centre?

A

A spherical aggregation of B lymphocytes and lymphoblasts.

  • Together with follicular dendritic cells
  • Macrophages and a few CD4+ T cells.
201
Q

Germinal centres develop in …

A

…primary follicles of lymphoid tissues - becomes a secondary follicle.

202
Q

Development of germinal centres requires what?

A

Requires T-cell interaction.

203
Q

Small oligoclonal foci of activated B cells develop into…

A

…germinal centres

204
Q

What happens to B cells of germinal centres?

A

1) The B cells proliferate rapidly, doubling every 6-12 hours
2) Transform in plasma / memory cells
3) Are modified to recognise antigen better

205
Q

Germinal centres produce?

A

1) Plasma cells
2) Memory cells

206
Q

What are plasma cells?

A

A type of B cell, making antibodies.

207
Q

Plasma cells do not…

A

…circulate in the blood

208
Q

Plasma cells do not circulate in the blood but…

A

… migrate to bone marrow, red pulp of spleen or deep cortex of lymph node.

209
Q

Memory cells circulate in…

A

… the blood.

210
Q

Memory cells are long what?

A

…long lived

211
Q

Memory cells set up…

A

…new germinal centres upon next exposure to antigen.

212
Q

Memory cells allow for a …

A

… faster response

213
Q

The 3 main types of professional Antigen Presenting Cell (APC) are…

A

1) Dendritic cells
2) Macrophages
3) B Cells

214
Q

Function of the 3 main types of professional Antigen Presenting Cell (APC)?

A

present antigen to T-cells

215
Q

The 3 main types of professional Antigen Presenting Cell (APC) are all found in the…

A

…lymph node.

216
Q

The spleen contains …

A

…25% of the total lymphocytes of the body.

217
Q

Splenectomised patients are …

A

… immunocompromised

218
Q

Splenectomised patients are immuno-compromised.
- Especially to…

A

…infection by encapsulated bacteria such as pneumococci.

219
Q

Splenectomised patients are immuno-compromised and so must be….

A

…vaccinated because a simple infection can cause sepsis.

220
Q

Unlike lymph nodes the spleen does not …

A

…receive lymph

221
Q

Unlike lymph nodes the spleen does not receive lymph.

It contains…

A

…many red blood cells.

222
Q

Red pulp in the spleen is…

A

…sponge like

223
Q

Red pulp of the spleen consists of…

A

… blood sinuses

224
Q

Red pulp of the spleen has cords of…

A

…reticular meshwork

225
Q

What white blood cells does the red pulp of the spleen contain?

A

Plasma cells and macrophages

226
Q

Red pulp of the spleen is responsible for…

A

…mechanical filtration of the blood

227
Q

Ultimate function of the Red pulp of the spleen?

A

To eliminate aged and abnormal erythrocytes and platelets

228
Q

What are the two different pulps of the spleen?

A

1) Red pulp
2) White pulp

229
Q

Where is the red pulp and white pulp found?

A

The Spleen

230
Q

What does white pulp contain?

A

Peri arteriolar lymphoid sheaths (PALS)

231
Q

What is white pulp largely populated by?

A

Largely populated by T cells

232
Q

White pulps are …

A

… germinal centres.

233
Q

White pulp is rich in…

A

… B lymphocytes

234
Q

What is the function of white pulp?

A

Active immune response through humoral and cell-mediated pathways

235
Q

Which organ…Allows the interaction of foreign antigen in lymphatic fluid with numerous B and T cells?
Spleen or lymph nodes?

A

Lymph nodes.

236
Q

Which organ…Allows the interaction of foreign antigen in blood with numerous B and T cells?
Spleen or Lymph nodes?

A

The spleen

237
Q

What is MALT?

A

Mucosa Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT)

238
Q

The main entry sites into the body are …

A

…the mucosal surfaces

239
Q

The main entry sites into the body are the mucosal surfaces.

These are protected by…

A

…Specialist tissues.

240
Q

What is a tonsil?

A

Mass of lymphoid tissue in submucosa of oropharynx

241
Q

What are tonsils made up from?

A

Many lymphoid follicles, mostly with germinal centres

242
Q
A
243
Q
A

Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology (11 decks)

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