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Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology > Endocrine System > Flashcards

Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

In order for all cells in our body to survive, we maintain …

A

…a constant internal environment

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2
Q

Examples of homeostasis?

A

Glucose for energy
Gas exchange (oxygen / carbon dioxide)
Growth rate
Removal of waste
Temperature

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3
Q

Homeostasis is the process by which…

A

…we maintain this constant internal environment, irrespective of the changing environment around us.

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4
Q

Homeostasis is accomplished by carefully balancing…

A

…excretion, losses, and intake of nutrients and internal production and metabolic consumption.

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5
Q

Homeostasis involves…

A

…the interaction between our many body systems

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6
Q

The endocrine system is closely linked with the…

A

…reproductive system

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7
Q

Whats a hormone?

A

a chemical released by one part of the body, but regulates the activity of a cell in another part of the body

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8
Q

Hormones are usually dispersed by…

A

…the blood circulation

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9
Q

What are glands?

A

synthesises substances (such as hormones) for release

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10
Q

Whats a neurotransmitter?

A

chemical released by nerve impulse; usually released locally at a synapse

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11
Q

Whats a receptor?

A
  • Target for hormone
  • Target for neurotransmitter
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12
Q

The endocrine system releases hormones into …

A

…the circulation or into interstitial fluid.

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13
Q

Hormones released by the endocrine system travel in the…

A

…bloodstream

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14
Q

Hormones target distant cells/organs in the…

A

…body

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15
Q

ENdocrine system regulates…

A

…homeostasis

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16
Q

Glands of the Endocrine System:

A

Pituitary / Hypothalamus
Thyroid
Thymus (Immune System lecture)
Adrenal
Pancreas
Ovaries / Testes

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17
Q

In contrast, glands of the exocrine system…

A

…release fluids into the lumen or outside of the body, typically by way of a duct

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18
Q

the pancreas has both …

A

…endocrine and exocrine functions

Endocrine = insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream
Exocrine = digestive enzymes into the duodenum

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19
Q

Hormones released by endocrine glands travel around …

A

…the body, but only exert their effect on target cells

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20
Q

target cells have specific ________ for specific _________

A

target cells have specific receptors for specific hormones

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21
Q

adrenaline released by the …

A

…adrenal glands travels around the bloodstream and binds to adrenoceptors (adrenergic receptors)

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22
Q

when adrenaline meets β1 adrenoceptors in the heart

A

increases inotropy (force of contraction)
increases chronotropy (rate of contraction)

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23
Q

Whats intropy?

A

force of contraction

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24
Q

Whats chronotropy?

A

rate of contraction

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25
Q

Some hormones have many different …

A

…receptors

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26
Q

adrenaline has ___ different receptors

A

adrenaline has 5 different receptors

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27
Q

Adrenalines 5 receptors:

A

a1, a2, B1, B2, B3

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28
Q

Adrenalines different receptors…

A

…all exert different effects and are found in different tissues

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29
Q

Adrenalines different receptors are activated by…

A

….different concentrations of adrenaline

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30
Q

There are two types of hormones:

A
  • Water soluble
  • Lipid soluble
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31
Q

Water soluble examples:

A
  • Adrenaline
  • Noradrenaline
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32
Q

Water soluble hormones include…

A

…Include amine containing hormones

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33
Q

Lipid soluble hormones include…

A

…steroid hormones

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34
Q

Examples of lipid soluble hormones:

A
  • Cortisol
  • Aldosterone
  • Androgens
  • Oestrogens and progestogens
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35
Q

Lipid-Soluble Hormones are found…

A

…inside cells.

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36
Q

as the hormones are lipid soluble, they can …

A

…diffuse across cell membranes

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37
Q

Lipid soluble hrmones are known as…

A

…intracellular receptors and are insdie the target cell

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38
Q

Lipid soluble hormones usually in…

A

…the cytoplasm or nucleus

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39
Q

Lipid-Soluble Hormones forms a …

A

…a receptor/hormone complex

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40
Q

Lipid-Soluble Hormones alters…

A

…gene expression

  • turns things on/off
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41
Q

Lipid-Soluble Hormones alter gene expression, turns things on/off, and affects…

A

…the target cells’ activity

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42
Q

Water soluble hormones bind to …

A

…target receptors outside cells

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43
Q

water soluble hormones cannot…

A

…diffuse across cell membranes

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44
Q

Water soluble hormones are known as…

A

…extracellular receptors (G protein-coupled receptor)

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45
Q

Water-Soluble Hormones are the…

A

…1st messenger

  • binds to the receptor
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46
Q

What do 2nd messenger systems do?

A

1) cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
2) cAMP activates protein kinases
3) protein kinases phosphroylate proteins
4) this either turns the protein on/off
5) affects the target cells’ activity

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47
Q

The Hypothalamus is the…

A

…master controller of the endocrine system

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48
Q

The hypothalamus is located…

A

…just below the thalamus of the brain.

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49
Q

Hypo means…

A

…under or below in greek

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50
Q

The hypothalamus is a major link between the …

A

…nervous and endocrine systems

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51
Q

The Hypothalamus is linked to the pituitry gland by the…

A

…infundibulum

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52
Q

Hormones from the Hypothalamus made by …

A

…the neurosecretory cells

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53
Q

Hormones from hypothalamus are packaged into…

A

…vesicles, which are released and diffuse into the plexus of the hypophyseal portal system

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54
Q

Hypothalamus produces…

A

…a variety of releasing / inhibiting hormones

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55
Q

Releasing hormones of the hypothalamus ?

A

CRH – Corticotropin Releasing Hormone
GHRH – Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (Somatocrinin)
GnRH – Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone
PRH – Prolactin Releasing Hormone (*thought to exist)
TRH – Thyrotrophin Releasing Hormone

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56
Q

Inhibiting hormones of the hypothalamus?

A

GHIH – Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone (Somatostatin)

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57
Q

Releasing and Inhibiting Hormones cause the anterior pituitary…

A

….to start/stop secreting hormones.

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58
Q

The Pituitary Gland is split into two parts:

A

1) Posterior Pituitary
2) Anterior Pituitary

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59
Q

Posterior Pituitary does not…

A

…synthesise hormones

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60
Q

Posterior Pituitary function?

A

Stores and releases two hormones made by the hypothalamus

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61
Q

What hormone does the posterior pituitary secrete?

A
  • Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)) – urinary system
  • Oxytocin – effects uterus and breasts
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62
Q

Anterior Pituitary gland Synthesises and secretes …

A

…a wide range of hormones

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63
Q

Anterior Pituitary Gland synthesises…

A

…releasing hormones.

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64
Q

Anterior Pituitary Gland five different…

A

…tropic cell types (1 – 5)

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65
Q

Anterior Pituitary Gland Secretes how many different hormones…

A

seven different hormones (I – VII)

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66
Q

The hormones released by Anterior Pituitary Gland?

A

1) Somatotrophs
- Secrete human Growth Hormone (hGH)
- cause cells to produce Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGF’s)
2) Thyrotrophs
- Secrete Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
- controls the Thyroid Gland
3) Gonadotrophs
- Secrete Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
- Secrete Luteinising Hormone (LH)
4) Lactotrophs
- Secrete Prolactin
5) Corticotrophs
- Secrete Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)
- Secrete Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

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67
Q

How many adrenal glands?

A

2

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68
Q

Where are adrenal glands found?

A

Found on top of each kidney

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69
Q

Size of adrenal glands?

A

3-5 cm high
2-3 cm x 1 cm width

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70
Q

The Adrenal Glands differentiated into ___ regions?

A

Two regions

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71
Q

What are the two regions of the adrenal glands?

A

1) Cortex
2) Medulla

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72
Q

adrenal glands produces…

A

…hormones

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73
Q

Adrenal glands are under…

A

…central control

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74
Q

Adrenal hormones produced by hypothalamus ?

A

Hypothalamus - Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)

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75
Q

Adrenal hormones produced by pituitary ?

A

Pituitary - secretes Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH)

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76
Q

Adrenal glands surrounded by a…

A

…capsule

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77
Q

Capsule made up of…

A

…connective tissue

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78
Q

Connective tissue / capsule of adrenal glands is highly…

A

…vascularised (blood supply)

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79
Q

The cortex and medulla of the adrenal gland secrete…

A

…hormones

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80
Q

The cortex of the adrenal gland comprises…

A

…80-90% of the gland

81
Q

Medulla of adrenal glands comprises…

A

…10-20% of the gland.

82
Q

Are adrenal glands essential for life?

A

Yes

83
Q

Loss of the adrenal hormones leads to …

A

…death by dehydration/electrolyte imbalance

84
Q

The cortex of the andrenal glands is subdivided into…

A

….3 zones

85
Q

3 zones of the adrenal glands cortex?

A

1) Zona glomerulosa
2) Zona fasciculata
3) Zona reticularis

86
Q

Zona glomerulosa:

A
  • Outer zone
  • Makes mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone)
87
Q

Zona fasciculata:

A
  • Middle zone
  • Makes glucocorticoids (Cortisol)
88
Q

Zona reticularis:

A
  • Inner zone
  • Weak androgens (dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA))
89
Q

Adrenal medulla contains…

A

…chromaffin cells.

90
Q

Adrenal medulla are able to secrete…

A
  • Adrenaline (A)
  • Noradrenaline (NA)
91
Q

Aldosterone is the major…

A

…mineralocorticoid

92
Q

Aldosterone is produced by…

A

…the zona glomerulosa

93
Q

Mineralocorticoid Hormones involved in…

A

…the excretion of H+ ions into the urine

94
Q

Mineralocorticoid regulates…

A

…the acid / base balance of the blood

95
Q

mineralocorticoid prevents …

A

…acidosis (blood pH < 7.35)

96
Q
A
97
Q

Main function of mineralcorticoids?

A

homeostasis of two mineral ions

  • sodium (Na+)
  • potassium (K+)
98
Q

Mineralocorticoids regulate homeostasis of potassium and sodium which regulate…

A
  • regulate blood volume
  • regulate blood pressure
99
Q

Homeostasis of sodium and potassium by mineralocorticoids is done through the…

A

…Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAA) pathway

100
Q

WHats ACE stand for?

A

Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE)

101
Q

Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) prevents…

A

…the conversion of Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II

102
Q

What are Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) taken for?

A

hypertension

103
Q

Examples of ACE drug?

A

Lisinopril / Enalapril

104
Q

Lisinopril / Enalapril reduces…

A

…vasoconstriction of arterioles

105
Q

Lisinopril / Enalapril treat…

A

…high blood pressure (hypertension)

106
Q

Lisinopril / Enalapril reduce…

A

… death rate following myocardial infarction / heart failure

107
Q

Lisinopril / Enalapril reduce load on…

A

… the heart and kidneys (in chronic kidney disease)

108
Q

There are three glucocorticoids:

A

1) Cortisol (hydrocortisone) – 95%
2) Cortisone
3) Corticosterone

109
Q

Glucocorticoids are produced by…

A

…zona fasiculata

110
Q

glucocorticoids are very similar in structure to …

A

…aldosterone

  • differ only in C=O and OH groups
111
Q

Glucocorticoid function:

A

Regulate metabolism
Resistance to stress

112
Q

Slide 28

A
113
Q

What do glucocorticoids do?

A
114
Q

Glucocorticoids are ____ hormones

A

Glucocorticoids are stress hormones

115
Q

WHen are glucocorticoids released?

A

Released by the body to deal with ‘challenging’ situations

116
Q

glucocorticoids promote…

A

…protein breakdown.

117
Q

Glucocorticoids increase the rate of …

A

…protein breakdown in the body

  • Usually in muscle fibres
118
Q

Glucocorticoids liberate ___ into the bloodstream

A

Glucocorticoids liberate amino acids into the bloodstream

119
Q

Amino acids may be used by body cells to …

A
  • synthesise new proteins
  • ATP production during prolonged hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar)
120
Q

Slide 30

A
121
Q

Slide 31

A
122
Q

The additional glucose helps alleviate stress by …

A

…providing ATP to combat stresses

123
Q

The additional glucose helps alleviate stress by providing ATP to combat stresses caused by:

A

Exercise
Fasting
Fright
Extremes of temperature
High altitude
Bleeding and Trauma
Infection
Disease
Surgery

124
Q

slide 33

A
125
Q

Glucocorticoid Drugs are used on …

A

…Psoriasis

126
Q

Positive affect of Glucocorticoid Drugs on Psoriasis?

A

Topical corticosteroids reduce local inflammation
Hydrocortisone cream
Lessens the redness
Prevents itching
This is good

127
Q

Negative affect of Glucocorticoid Drugs on Psoriasis?

A

They suppress the immune system
They can enable an infection to develop
Hide the signs of infection
This is bad

128
Q

Positive affect of Glucocorticoid Drugs on Organ transplantation / autoimmune disease?

A

If you have a transplant, you must take drugs to prevent tissue rejection forever
Or suppress immune system in autoimmune disease
This will keep you alive
This is good

129
Q

Negative affect of Glucocorticoid Drugs on Organ transplantation / autoimmune disease?

A

Getting the right balance between suppression / infection is very difficult
If the dose is not quite perfect
Very high risk of opportunistic infection
Kaposi sarcoma (tumour caused by Herpes virus)
This is bad

130
Q

Cushing syndrome is caused by…

A

…high levels of exposure to cortisol

131
Q

Causes of Cushing Syndrome:

A

1) Overstimulation of the adrenal cortex by excessive hormone release
- Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH)
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - corticotrophin
2) Adrenalcorticol adenoma secreting cortisol
- Very common benign tumour (up to 30% of us have it at death)
- But only 15% actually secrete hormones
3) ACTH secreting tumours
- These are not pituitary tumours as you would expect
- Called small cell carcinomas
- Highly malignant cancer most commonly found in the lung
- Produce hormones including ACTH (or ADH)
4) Exposure to glucocorticoid drugs (iatrogenic or preventable)
- Usually through certain asthma / rheumatoid arthritis / immunosuppression medications

132
Q

Symptoms of Cushing Syndrome:

A
  • Excessive gluconeogenesis
  • Elevated blood glucose
  • Glucose gets deposited as fat
  • Moon face
  • Buffalo hump
  • Loss of lean muscle
  • Weakness
133
Q

What does treatment of Cushing Syndrome depend on?

A
  • Treatment depends on the cause
134
Q

What is DHEA?

A

Dehydroepiandrosterone

135
Q

DHEA produced by…

A

…zona reticularis

136
Q

Prior to puberty ____ is the major androgen in males

A

Prior to puberty Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is the major androgen in males

  • Then, testosterone takes over.
137
Q

Functions of Adrenal Androgens in males?

A

Pubic hair development, but insignificant after puberty

138
Q

Functions of Adrenal Androgens in females?

A
  • Sex drive (libido)
  • Converted to oestrogen (female sex hormone) by other tissue in the body
  • After menopause, they will be the only source of oestrogen
139
Q

Slide 39

A
140
Q

The adrenal medulla is a modified what?

A

a modified sympathetic ganglion

141
Q

What does the adrenal medulla lack?

A

Axons

142
Q

How do cells grow in blood vessels?

A

The cells grow in clusters around blood vessels (chromaffin cells)

143
Q

Adrenaline is released as…

A

… a hormone

144
Q

The medulla is innervated by the…

A

…ANS

145
Q

The medulla is innervated by the ANS and can quickly …

A

…stimulate catecholamine secretion

146
Q

The adrenal medulla is the innermost part of the…

A

…adrenal glands

147
Q

What does the adrenal medulla produce?

A

Catechoolamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine / adrenaline and noradrenaline)

148
Q

Percentage amounts of catecholamines produced?

A

Adrenaline (epinephrine) - (80%)
Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine) – (20%)

149
Q

In the adrenal glands catecholamines are …

A

… hormones

150
Q

In the adrenal glands catecholamines are hormones.

However in the CNS they function as…

A

… neurotransmitters.

151
Q

Function of Catecholamine hormones?

A

– Produce the ‘Fight or Flight’ response
– Stressful situations
– Exercise

152
Q

Effects of catecholamines?

A
  • Increase force and rate of heart contraction
  • Increase blood pressure
  • Dilate airways – B2 adrenoceptor
  • Increase blood sugar by breaking down glycogen
  • Increase blood flow to the muscles / liver.
153
Q

Why are catecholamines important?

A
  • Heart is primed for activity
  • Extra glucose for muscles and lots of air to the lungs
154
Q

Examples of catecholamine drugs?

A

1) Ventolin
2) Beta blockers

155
Q

What is ventolin?

A

Asthma inhaler

156
Q

What does ventolin contain?

A

salbutamol

157
Q

What kind of agonist in ventolin?

A

B2 adrenoceptor agonist

158
Q

Ventolin specifically affects receptors in…

A

…the airways

159
Q

How does ventolin make it easier to breathe?

A

Dilates airways making it easier to breathe

160
Q

How are catecholamines used in cardiac arrest?

A
  • Administer adrenaline / noradrenaline
  • CPR
  • Defibrillation
  • Increases heart rate
  • Increases force of contraction
  • Helps restart the heart
161
Q

Examples of catecholamine drugs?

A
  • Propranolol (b1 and b2 antagonist)
  • Atenolol (b1 antagonist)
162
Q

What are catecholamine drugs used to treat?

A
  • High blood pressure
  • Tachycardia
  • Angina
  • Glaucoma
163
Q

What can beta blockers also be used to help calm?

A

Performance anxiety

164
Q

How do beta blockers help with performance anxiety?

A

Prevents:
- Dry mouth
- Increased heart rate
- Butterflies in the stomach
- Tremor
- Banned in sports (not useful in all sports)

165
Q

How many Gonads do males and females have?

A

Males have two and females have two

166
Q

What are the Gonads in males?

A

Testes

167
Q

What are the Gonads in females?

A

Ovaries

168
Q

Like many other glands, the gonads are under…

A

… central control by the hypothalamus.

169
Q

What does the hypothalamus release which helps to control the gonads?

A

Secretes Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

170
Q

What does the pituitary gland release which helps to control the gonads?

A

Secretes Luteinising Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulate Hormone (FSH)

171
Q

Whats LH?

A

Luteinising Hormone

172
Q

Whats FSH?

A

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

173
Q

What is the primary trigger of puberty?

A

Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

174
Q

Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) is produced by…

A

…Hypothalamus gland

175
Q

Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) has a […] release

A

Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) has a pulsatile release

176
Q

Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) causes the release of …

A

…. Gonadotrophins

177
Q

Gonadotrophins have a […] release.

A

Gonadotrophins have a pulsatile release.

178
Q

In females, Luteinising Hormone (LH) acts on…

A

… Theca cells

179
Q

Theca cells surround the …

A

…follicles

180
Q

What do theca cells synthesise?

A

androgens

181
Q

Oestrogens are synthesised
from …

A

… androgens

182
Q

In females, FSH stimulates…

A

… immature ovarian follicles to develop

183
Q

n females, FSH stimulates immature ovarian follicles to develop.

Then the follicles…

A

…. mature.

184
Q

Follicle means what in latin?

A

means nest in latin

185
Q

The process of egg development is known as?

A

Oogenesis

186
Q

Whats Oogenesis?

A

Egg development

187
Q

Whats oestrogen responsible for in females?

A
  • Growth of breasts
  • Growth of pubic hair
  • Bone growth (growth spurts, widening of the hips)
  • More subcutaneous fat (hips, thighs, and buttocks)
  • Growth of the uterus
  • Proliferation of the endometrium (menstrual cycle, monthly development and release of 1 egg, place for implantation (endometrium))
188
Q

Whats endometrium?

A

place for implantation

189
Q

In males, LH acts on…

A

…Leydig cells

190
Q

In males, LH acts of the Leydig cells which synthesises what?

A

synthesises testosterone (increases testosterone levels)

191
Q

In males, FSH stimulates…

A

… follicles

192
Q

In males, FSH stimulates follicles and acts on the…

A

…Sertoli cells

193
Q

In males, FSH acts on the Sertoli cells which stimulates…

A

… primary spermatocytes to undergo
the first division of meiosis, forming secondary spermatocytes.

194
Q

FSH is a key hormone in the process of…

A

…spermatogenesis (sperm production)

195
Q

Whats spermatogenesis?

A

sperm production

196
Q

Effects of testosterone in males?

A
  • Enlargement of the larynx & laryngeal muscle
  • Enlargement of the genitalia
  • Growth of pubic hair
  • Growth of facial hair
  • Bone growth (growth spurt, become broader in the shoulders)
  • Fusing of epiphyseal plates
197
Q

What are epiphyseal plates?

A
  • hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis
  • found at each end of the long bones
198
Q
A

Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology (11 decks)

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