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Phase 2a > ICS - Immunology > Flashcards

ICS - Immunology Flashcards

1
Q

what is innnate imunity

A

instinctive, non specific does not depend on lymphocytes, it is presant from birth

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2
Q

what is adaptive immunity

A

specific and learned. it requires lymphocytes and antibodies
noth innate and adaptice immunity are made up of cells and soluble factros (humoral)

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3
Q

what is teh main purpose of eh immune system

A

to distuingish between self and non self

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4
Q

when you centrifuge a blood sample, what 3 layers are presant

A

plasma, tehn teh buffy coat of leukocytes, then teh lower layer of erthrocytes and platelets

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5
Q

what is serum

A

plasma witjout fibrinogen and other clotting factors

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6
Q

what are the three polymorphonucleur leukocytes

A

eosinophil. neutrophil, basophil

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7
Q

what are teh mononumcleur leukocytes

A

monocytes, t cells, b cells

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8
Q

what do monocytes turn into

A

macrophages whihc are static in tissues

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9
Q

what do b cells turn into

A

plasma cells

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10
Q

what do t cells turn into

A

t regulator, t helper, cytotoxic, th17

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11
Q

what are the three immune cells whihc are in a catogry by themselves

A

mast cells, natural killer cells, dendritic cels (macropgages in teh skin)

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12
Q

what are teh 4 soluble factors

A

complement, antibodies, cytokines and chemokines

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13
Q

what are complement factors

A

serum priotines secreted by the liver that need to be activated to be functional

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14
Q

what are teh modes of action for complement factors

A

direct lysis, attract more leukocytes, coat invading organism

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15
Q

how do antibodies work

A

bind to antigens, are soluble

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16
Q

what are teh 5 classes of imunoglobulins

A

GAMED

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17
Q

what is teh structure of an antibodies

A

it is Y shaped, with an Fc (commen end) and then FAB ends which are specific to teh antigens, it is made of a heavy chain and a light chain

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18
Q

what is teh most commen tyrp of antibody

A

IgG, it can go anywhere

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19
Q

infomation about IgM

A

it is a large molecuke and is resticted the blood

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20
Q

what is IgA

A

it is secreted in everything - saliva, breastmik, vaginalk fluids. It is important for killing things outsode of teh body

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21
Q

wha are teh functions of antibodies

A

act as opsiion
agglutination
anti toxin

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22
Q

what is a cytokine

A

protiens secreted by the immun and non immune cells

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23
Q

what are teh 5 groups of cytokines

A

interferons
interluikins
colony stimuluating factors
tumour nectosis factor
chemokines

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24
Q

what is an interferon

A

a cytokine whihc induces a state of antiviral resistance in uninfected cells

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25
Q

what are interleukins

A

produced by many cells, can be proinflamitory
causes cells to divide, differentiate and relaese factrs

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26
Q

what are colony stimulating facros

A

involved in teh division and differentiation of bone amarrow stem cells and are precurosrs to leukocytes

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27
Q

what is tumour necrosis factor

A

medicate the inflamitory response - are pro inflamitry and cytotoxic reactions

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28
Q

what are chemokines

A

leykocyte chemoattractants

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29
Q

what is innate immunity composed of 3 main parts

A

physical and chemicla barries
phagocytic cells (neutrophilss and macrophages)
blood protiens ( complement and acute ohase)

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30
Q

what are physical and chemicla barriers

A

lysozomes in tears
skin as a physical barrier
mucus n lungs
acid in gut
low vaginal ph

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31
Q

wha is teh bodys response to a cut

A

Stop bleeding (coagulation)
Acute inflammation (leukocyte recruitment)
Kill pathogens, neutralise toxins, limit pathogen spread
Clear pathogens/dead cells (phagocytosis)
Proliferation of cells to repair damage
Remove blood clot – remodel extracellular matrix
Re-establish normal structure/function of tissue

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32
Q

what are teh three steps of inflamaiton

A

Increased blood supply
Increased vascular permeability
Increased leukocyte transendothelial migration ‘extravasation’

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33
Q

which cells sense micorbes in the blood

A

monocytes and neutrophills

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34
Q

whihc cells sense microbes in teh tissues

A

macrophages, dendritic cells

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35
Q

what does PRR and PAMP stand for

A

PRR – Pattern Recognition Receptors (on cells)
PAMP – Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns
(on microbe)

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36
Q

what do tehe complement facotrs do

A

lyse microbes directly, chemotaxes, opsoniation

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37
Q

what is teh process of extraavasion

A

(diapadesis)
endothelial cell becomes sticky,
teh neutrophills strat to rolll instead of flowinf past
they begin to get fully stuck
they tehn squeeze though teh gaps and move to teh sight of infection

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38
Q

what is MHC

A

major histocompatibility complex

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39
Q

what are antigen presenting cells

A

macrophages, dendritic cells, b cells

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40
Q

how do t cells work

A

respond to presented antigens
t cell receptor recognises forign antigens in association with major histocompatibility complex

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41
Q

how are t cells made in childood

A

in the feotus, teh t cells kill all of the self recognising t cells

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42
Q

what are intrinsic antigens

A
  • are for viruses and kill teh cell infected by the pathogen, this is down by teh t killer cells
43
Q

what are extrinsic antigens

A

MHC class 2, they t helper cells help teh b cells make extrcellular pathogen and can help to kill it directly

44
Q

what are teh tyes of t cells

A

naive, undifferentiaeted
CD8 - T killer cell
CD4 - (teh precursor one that divides itno TH1 and TH2)
TH1 - helps to kill intracellular pathpgens
TH2 - T helper cell antibody production helper

45
Q

what is humoral immunity

A

b cell based, this is teh antibodies

46
Q

what are the three t cells taht do the work

A

TH1 - macrophage activation
TH2 - b cell activation
CTL - cytotoxicity

47
Q

what are teh primary lymphoid organs

A

bone marrow - all immune cell origins and teh B cell maturation site
thymus - t cell maturation sight

48
Q

what is seconday lymphoid organs

A

They provide a space for teh forign antigens to inteact with the lymphocytes
lymph nodes - site of DC, B and T cell interactions
spleen - removal of RBC and Ab coated bacteria
there are alos muscosal associated lymphoid tissues in teh gut such as peyers patches in teh gut

49
Q

what is teh tertiary lymphoid organs

A

transiet formation of genminal centres, usulaly pathplogy related
they form ectopicallt at sights of chronic inflamation such as in multiple sclarosis there are TLOs in teh brain whihc stop teh mylenation.

50
Q

what are the two pulps of teh spleen

A

red pulp - miltratio of RBC
white pulp - active immune response trhough humoral and cell mediated immunity. rich in t cells and teh lymphoid follicules are rich in b cells

51
Q

what is teh storage function of teh spleen

A

stored 25% of lymphocytes and 30% of red blood cells, it can also store platelets
it also produces red blood cells

52
Q

what is teh initial blood cell called

A

heamocytoblast

53
Q

how do neutrophills kill the pathogens though phagocytosis

A

contian 2 granule types containg enzyme and lowerd pH but this onyl kills 2% of pathogens
they take loads of pathogens into the cell
they then do teh respiritory burst whihc kills teh pathogens and also teh neutrophills tehmelsves, it is a suicide bomber!!

54
Q

what is teh respitiory burst

A

teh releae of free radicals in neutrophils using the free radicas superoixede nd hydrogen peroxide
teh enzyme myloperoxidase is used to produce CL.

55
Q

what is teh role of dendritic cells

A

they are antigen presenting cells that take teh antigen to teh lymph node, where it can select teh correct T cell, thsi is caled T cell priming
T cells can only recognise antigens presented on MHC

56
Q

Whats do natural killer cells do

A

kill cells infected with viruses r cancer by injecting toxins or causing apoptosis

57
Q

What is teh B cells role with antigens

A

They can react to both presented and non presented antigens
tehy can also phagocytoese and present themsleves onto MCH2

58
Q

How does a B cell react to being shown an antigen

A

phagocytose it if its a pathogen and become antigen presenting by putting it on the MHC2
Become activated whihc helps it turn into a mast cellk
mast cells release antibodyes (whihc are really just the antigens on teh B cell but floating free)

59
Q

Whast are teh two types of T cell

A

CD4 - the T helper cells which secrete cytokines to help teh cells coordinate via chemotaxis, They can only see antigens on MCH2
CD8 - these are teh cytotoxic t killer cells, very similar to teh natural killer cells but only see antgens presented on the MCH1 complex not all of them

60
Q

what are the two types of receptors found on the T cells

A

phagocytotic - allow it to bind and then phagocytose, thsi allows for teh investigation of teh pathogens
Signalling - toll like receptors which are all teh complicated (or not so much hahaha) T thingys whihc are inside and out side of teh cell

61
Q

what re teh two gruanel tyes found inside of the ohagolysosome

A

specific - protease and hydrolse enzyme whihc are activated at a neutral ph (so first)
nect teh ph is lowerd
thsi causes teh azurophilic granusls to be reale whihc are hydrolases and oxidative eenzymes

62
Q

describe the different signalling PRRs

A

TLR = toll like receptor

TLR 1 2 4 5 6 - work extracellularly and respond to PAMPs such as peptidoglycan and lipolysaccorise and teh flagella protines

TLR 3 7 8 9 - on teh inside of teh cell and respond to virus RNA, work intrinsically, cause a release of proinflamitory cytokines, whihc cass vasodilation, fever and increased leukocyte prescne
it will also produce interferon alpha a and b whihc stop teh virus from replicating in other cells

63
Q

which receptors are cytolysic

A

NOD-Like Receptors and RIG-Like receptors are cytosolic

64
Q

what us pyroptosis

A

Pyroptosis is an inflammatory programmed cell death in response to bacterial infection.

65
Q

what attracts neutrophills to teh sight of infection

A

chemokine IL-8 (CXCL8)

66
Q

how do neutriphills get teh teh infected tissues

A
  1. E-selectin (an adhesion molecule on the capillary endothelium), is activated by IL-1 and TNF-α from damaged cells and binds to the glycoprotein CD15 on neutrophils in blood.
  2. This causes neutrophils in the blood to slow down and roll along the endothelium lining.
  3. ICAM-1 on endothelium (induced by LPS, IL-1, TNF-α) binds to integrin on neutrophil; the neutrophil stops.
  4. Diapedesis: neutrophil squeezes through endothelium (holes caused by C3a, C5a, chemokines, histamines, prostaglandins, leukotrienes (causing smooth muscle contractions in the bronchioles))
67
Q

what are eosinophills important for

A

Important cells in dealing with parasitic infections.
Release cationic granules such as major basic protein.
Release ROS, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, elastase among other molecules.

68
Q

whay are basophills importnat for

A

Can be thought of as circulating mast cells that release histamine upon IgE crosslinking Fcε receptors.
They also secrete serotonin and heparin
Important in asthma, anaphylaxis, atopic dermatitis, and hay fever.
Key point; They do not egress into tissues and become mast cells .

69
Q

what are yeh three granulomacytes (polymorphonuclar cells and whta does this mean)

A

BEN; Basophil, Eosinophil, and Neutrophil.
pmn cells - tehy have multiple nucelues

70
Q

what are mast cells important for

A

Important in parasitic infection and allergic reactions.
At mucosal surfaces.
Stem cell factor is essential for development.
Main source of histamine.
Activated by immune complex IgE crosslinking FcεR1

71
Q

What are teh 5 antobodies for

A

G - teh main antibody, can cross teh placenta, beinds to phagocytes
A - secretes into mucous saliva teads, tags pathogens for destruction
M - fixes complement, main antibody of primary response, B cell recepor and important for the immune memnorry
E - bainds to mast cells and basophil allergy and hypersensitivity
D - b cell receptor, stimulates release of IgM

72
Q

how do natural killer cells work

A

ADCC is an independent mechanism that does not require complement and uses only one cell type. It is classically NK cells that do this. Typically IgG will bind surface antigens on the pathogen-infected or cancer cell. NK have Fc receptors (CD16) that recognise the antibody Fc region. This cross-linking triggers degranulation and cell apoptosis. Viral proteins are expressed on the surface of cells during viral replication can become antibody targets.

73
Q

whihc cells can present MCH1 and whihc can present MCH2

A

MCH1 - all nucleated cells - this means red vblood cells dont!!
MCH2 - macrophages, B cells, dendritic cells

74
Q

what has to happen between a dendritic cella and t cell for a response to occur

A

When immune cells come together they form what is know as an immune synapse. For a response to occur 3 things are essential 1. Binding of primary receptors e.g. TCR to MHC II. 2. Binding of co-stimulatory molecules e.g. CD28/CTLA4 to CD80/CD86. 3. A robust release of the appropriate cytokines. MHC binding without other stimulation leads to anergy (lack of response as a form of peripheral tolerance).

75
Q

what are teh markers on T cells

A

Naïve T cells are identified by being CD45RA+ whereas memory T cells are identified by being CD45RO+. The general marker for T cell activation is CD25 expression.

76
Q

what are the t types of T helper cells

A

Th1 - cell mediated immunir=ty regulation, regulation of monocytes and macrophages
Th2 - hummoral immunity, regulators of eosinophil, basophils and mast cells

77
Q

what are the 4 hypersensitivty reactions

A

Type I (allergy)
Primarily IgE dependent
Type II
Primarily IgG-dependent cytotoxicity
Type III
IgG/IgM-dependent immune complex formation
Type IV (delayed type hypersensitivity, DTH)
Cell dependent (Th1/cytotoxic T cells/macrophages)

78
Q

which antibodies corspond to whihc reaction

A

1= IgE - Eleanor is having an allergic reaction
2 = IgM and IgG - myself im attacking
3 = IgG - gathering of antibodies
4 = T cells - go cray cray but it’s a bit delayed

79
Q

what are the 7 allergic diseases

A

Anaphylaxis
Allergic asthma
Allergic rhinitis (hay fever)
Atopic dermatitis
Allergic conjunctivitis
Oral allergy syndrome (food allergy)
Angioedema (not idiopathic)

80
Q

what cells are invoved in allergic reactions

A

eosinophills, mast cells and basophills

81
Q

defien atopy

A

Atopy = a hereditary predisposition to the development of immediate hypersensitivity reactions against common environmental antigens.

82
Q

what are teh CD4+ cells for tolerance and inflammation

A

TREG - T regulation causes tolerance - IL10 cytokine has mass antiinflamitory actions

Th17 - importnat in muclsal mucosal membranes it promtes inflamation, teh princilple cytokine is IL17!

83
Q

where does B cell regulation take place

A

secondary lympohid organs (lymph nodes)

84
Q

what is teh structure of an antibody

A

FAB regrion - antigen binding fragment binds to e antigen and are the effector regtions

Fc region - constant regeon

85
Q

what are teh functions of antibodies

A

Neutralisation of toxins, agglutination, precipitation, opsonisation of pathogens, complement activation via the classical pathway 🡪 cell lysis and chemoattraction.

86
Q

what are teh 4 hypersensitivoty reactions (PTS defornitions)

A

Type 1 is a fast reaction occurring in minutes. Cross-linking of antigen to IgE on mast cells and basophils causes massive degranulation and therefore massive release of histamine.
Type 2 IgM or IgG binds to self antigen leading to cell destruction by the membrane attack complex and cellular mechanisms.
Type 3 IgG binds soluble antigen forming a circulating immune complex. These deposit in vessel walls especially in the kidneys. Here they kick off an inflammatory response causing complement deposition, opsonisation, phagocytosis etc. RBCs carrying the complement receptor 1 bind complement coated immune complexes and transport them to the liver and spleen for phagocytosis.
Type 4; This is helper T cell mediated. Specifically Th1. Th1 are activated by antigen presenting cells. Memory T cells are formed. When the memory T cells encounter the antigen again, they will activate macrophages leading to tissue damage.

87
Q

what is teh diffecne between immune tolerance and autoimmunity

A

Immune tolerance refers to the unresponsiveness of the immune system to self-antigens. This is crucial in order to avoid inflammatory reactions against healthy tissue. Autoimmunity arises when there is a breakdown of immune tolerance.

88
Q

what are teh features of autoimmunity

A

Often relapsing-remitting
Organ-specific vs Systemic
Damage to or destruction of tissues
Altered organ growth/function
Generation of autoantibodies

89
Q

what is a primary and secondary immunodeficancy

A

Primary Immunodeficiency
Those born with intrinsic defects in their immune system.
Rare and mostly genetic disorders
E.g. SCID

Secondary Immunodeficiency
These are acquired and are referred to generally as immunosuppression
Drug induced e.g. Steroids, azathioprine, chemotherapy.
Cancers of the bone marrow and blood cells
AIDS.

90
Q

what is tumour necrosis factor

A

release by macrophages
it induces fever and acts as a neutrophil chemotaxis

91
Q

what are 4 immuno surpressive drugs

A

glucocorticoids
Ciclosporin, tacrolimus and rapamycin
Purine analogues.
Alkylating agents.

92
Q

what is a pyogenic infection and what cell is most liekly to be raised

A

Pyogenic infections are characterized by local inflammation of skin, soft tissue and bodily parts which are mainly caused by invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microorganism

Neutrophil!

93
Q

what is teh difference between MC2 and MHC 1

A

MHC1 - its is shown on all cells and shows endogenous antigens to show that it is part of self

MHC2 - shown on antigen presentic cells such as b ells, macrophages and dendritic cells, its shows exogenous antigens such as from pathogens

94
Q

what are toll like recepros

A

they are signalling PRRs cause a cascade of signals to be released
Single polypeptide chain found on all leukocytes, epithelial cells ad endothelial cells as well

95
Q

what are the two catogries of TRRs

A
  • TLR 1 2 4 5 6
    • Are on the cell surface and bind to extracellular PAMPs such as peptoglycan, lipopolysaccoride and flagella
    • TLR 3 7 8 9
    • Are in the cell, bind to intracellular PAMPS such as viral RNA
    • These activate transcription factor NF-kb
    • Casing a proinflamitory cytokine secretion
    • This causes vasodilation, fever and increase leukocyte prescence
    • If it’s a virus the cell will also produce interferon alpha and beta which stops the virus from replicaitng in other cells
96
Q

what does TLR 2 3 4 respong to

A

2- gram positive and TB
3- intracellular stuff
4- LPS (lipopolysaccoride on gram negative)

97
Q

what do TLR 5 7 8 9 respong to

A

5 - flagella
7 - single strnad RNA
8 - intracellular
9 - non methylated DNA

98
Q

what is teh comminication of a dendritic cell and t helper cell called

A

dendritic synapse

99
Q

what receptors do cd4 and cd8 respond too

A

cd4 respond to mhc2
cd8 respond to mhc1

the way to remeber tis is that 8x1 is 8 and 2 x 4 is also 8

100
Q

what is thymic selection and how does it happen

A

it is when teh thymus gets rid of teh t cells that are self recognising and would causse an autoimmune disease

if it is positivly slected, it responds to mhc1 and 2 and doesnt cause an immune response

100
Q

what is thymic selection and how does it happen

A

it is when teh thymus gets rid of teh t cells that are self recognising and would causse an autoimmune disease

if it is positivly slected, it responds to mhc1 and 2 and doesnt cause an immune response

if it is negativly selected it will recognise teh anitbodies but will still cuase an immune reponse

101
Q

what do interlukins do t helper cells produce

A

T helper cells release interlukin 4 and 5
* Interlukin 4 incduces clonal expansion of b cells
* Interlukin 5 induces b cell differentiation into a plasma cell to produce antibodies

102
Q

define somatic mutation and class switching

A
  • Somatic hypermutation - point mutation in Ig as evolutionary measyre
    • Class switching - change one Ig into anotehr type

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