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Acute > Head and spinal injury > Flashcards

Head and spinal injury Flashcards

1
Q

Which type of head injury is most common?

A

Blunt trauma (as opposed to penetrating)

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2
Q

Common causes of head injury

A
  • RTAs
  • Falls
  • Assaults
  • Sports
  • Workplace injuries
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3
Q

Primary vs secondary brain injury

A

Primary: occurs at time of injury, axonal shearing and disrutpion with associated areas of haemorrhage

Widespread: diffuse axonal injury

Localised injury: coup-contre-coup

>>The only cure for this would be to prevent accidents/ damage limitation e.g. helmets<<

Secondary: occurs later, due to various problems that commonly occur e.g. hypoxia, hypovolemia, intracranial haematoma and raised ICP, epileptic fits, infection

>>The aim of managament in ED is to prevent secondary traumatic brain injury<<

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4
Q

How do we calculate CPP?

A

MAP - ICP

MAP = systolic BP + diastolic BP + diastolic BP

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5
Q

Following head injury, what are the indications for referral to hospital?

A
  • Impaired consciousness at any time
  • Amnesia
  • Neuro symptoms: vomiting, severe headache, seizures
  • Skull fracture: CSF leak, peri-orbital haematoma
  • Significant extracranial injuries
  • Worrying mechanism e.g. high energy/ NAI
  • Comorbidity e.g. anticoagulant use/ alcohol
  • Adverse social factors e.g. home alone
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6
Q

Simple method of assessing the severity of a head injury

A

AVPU

Patient unresponsive/ only responding to pain - call for senior help + ICU/ anaesthetist as patient will need expert airway care and IPPV

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7
Q

Monitoring of patients following head injury

A

Every head-injured patient must receive regularneurological obs - early identification of complications e.g. intracranial haematoma, fits and hypovolaemia is esstntial in order for early treatment

Any deterioration in GCS is an emergency - re-examine and correct problems + call for senior help

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8
Q

Important to know about when taking a head injury hx

A

Mechanism: allows for impression of the forces involved and risk of complications

Time of injury

Loss of consciousness/ amnesia: unconsciousness suggests at least moderate severity, 30mins+ amnesia warrants head CT

Subsequent symptoms: headache, N&V, weakness, sensory loss, visual disturbance, rhinorrhoea, otorrhoea

PMHx: anything that could have caused the injury/ make it worse e.g. epilepsy, cardiac arrhythmias, DM, coagulopathy, thrombocytopenic

Drug hx: drugs/ alcohol, antigoagulants, patients on clopidogrel may be at higher risk of intracranial haemorrhage following head injury so low CT threshold

Social: is there someone at home/ someone they can stay the night with

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9
Q

Discuss the GCS score

A

Scored from 3-15 assessing eye response, verbal response and motor response

Unconsciousness is taken to mean no eye response and GCS =<8

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10
Q

Simple blood test essential in all patients presenting to a&e following head injury/ confused

A

BLOOD GLUCOSE

DONT EVER FORGET GLUCOSE

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11
Q

Areas to cover in examination following head injury

A

C-spine

GCS

Vital signs/ obs

Blood glucose

Alcohol: never assume low GCS is due to alcohol

Eye signs: pupils

Scalp, face, head: cranial nerves

Limbs: neuro exam

Other injuries: intra-abdominal injuries often co-exist with serious head injuries

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12
Q

Signs of base of skull fracture

A

Often a clinical diagnosis

  1. Bilateral orbital bruising confined to orbital margin: panda eyes
  2. Subconjunctival haemorrhage
  3. Bleeding from ears/ blood behind typanum
  4. CSF otorrhoea and rhinorrhoea: separates into double ring when dropped on blotting paper
  5. Battle’s sign: brusing behind ears without local direct trauma - occurs due topetrous temporal bone facture - takes a few days to appear
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13
Q

Clinical features pointing towards an intracranial haematoma

A

Emergence of focal neurological signs

Deteriorating GCS

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14
Q

Indications for CT scan following head injury

A

GCS <13 on initial assessment

GCS <15 after 2hrs

Suspected skull fracture/ basal skull fracture

Post injury seizure

Focal neurological deficit Vomiting

Amnesia >30mins

LOC

Dangerous mechanism

Most requests will be urgent - scan interpreted within 1hr

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15
Q

Initial management of a head injury

A

ABCDE dont ever forget GLUCOSE

2x IV large bore cannula

Bloods: FBC, clotting screen, U&E, glucose

If GCS =<8: rapid sequence induction + intubation

Arrange CT

Give IV antibiotics for compound skull fracture

Liaise w/neurosurgery early

Urinary catheter

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16
Q

Treating complications of head injury

A

Diminishing consciousness likely to reflect intracranial pathology leading to rise in ICP

Liaise w/ neurosurgeon: they may advise use of mannitol to decrease ICP as a time buying measure

Hypertonic saline acts as an osmotic agent and can dcrease ICP whilst increasing intravascular volume

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17
Q

What medical therapy is used to reduce ICP to buy time?

A

Mannitol - bolus IV

Hypertonic saline

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18
Q

Investigations and management of patient with seizure

A

Check glucose and ABG

Give IV lorazepam - repeat once if it doesn’t work

IVI phenytoin with ECG monitoring (can cause bradycardia when given IV)

Levetiracetam is an alternative to phenytoin

Seizure >10-15mins - senior help, RSI, intubation and IPPV

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19
Q

Golden rules for managing head injury

A
  • Never attribute low GCS to alcohol alone
  • Never discharge a head-injured patient to go home alone
  • Consider admitting patients with head injury who have a coagulopathy/ anticoagulants
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20
Q

Head injury warning instructions

A

Adults

  • Ensure eye is kept on patient for 24hrs
  • Rest 24hr
  • Pain killers
  • No alcohol for 24hrs
  • Do not take sleeping tablets
  • Any of the following, come back: persistent headache, vomiting, visual changes, balance problems, fits, unrousable

Children

  • Child may be more tired than usual
  • Allow them to sleep
  • Pain killers
  • Any of the following come back: persistent headache, vomiting, visual changes, balance problems, fits, unrousable
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21
Q

Post-concussion symptoms

A

Frequent: headache, dizziness, lethargy, depression, inability to concentrate

~30% patients have headaches for 2months

Migraine may become more frequent after head injury

Diagnosis of exclusion

Subdural haematoma: consider in alcoholics/ elderly and those on anticoagulants - low threshold for CT

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22
Q

How are post concussion symptoms managed?

A

Reassure + explain that they are likely to resolve gradually

Arrange appropriate follow up with GP

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23
Q

Concussion advice for those who play sport and high-level sport

A

Rest initially, especially when symptomatic

Take advice from those within their sport about when it is safe to return

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24
Q

Pulsatile tinnitus/ whooshing sound in one ear following head injury

A

Consider carotid/ vertebral artery dissection

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25
Q

What evidence might there be on the bedsheet of a patient with a CSF leak?

A

Blood surrounded by a halo of pale fluid

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26
Q

Assessing for maxillofacial injuries

A

Palpate facial bones systematically

Dish face, flattening of cheek, assymetry, nasal deviation, uneven pupil levels (orbital floor fracture)

Loose/ lost teeth: may have been aspirated

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27
Q

Which airway adjunct should not be used in patients with facial fractures

A

NP - can go into brain

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28
Q

What is silver trauma?

A

Trauma in the elderly

Most common cause of serious injury in those 60+ is a fall from standing

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29
Q

Why is it so important to immobilise the neck

A

It is the most common site of cord injury

Important to note that ventilation can be impaired due to cord oedema so keep a regular eye on diaphragmatic breathing and use pulse oximetry and regular ABGs to confirm adequate oxygenation

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30
Q

Indicators of spinal injruy in patients with loss/ decrease in consciousness

A

Flaccid arreflexia

Decreased anal tone

Diaphragmatic breathing

Able to flex C5/C6 but not extenf C6/C7

Response to pain above the clavicle but not below

Hypotension + bradycardia

Priapism

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31
Q

Initial management of a patient with a spinal cord injury

A

Monitor ECG and BP: interruption of cord sympathetic system causes loss of vasomotor tone + vasodilation, venous pooling and decreased BP

Insert urinary catheter to monitor urine output and prevent bladder distension

Neuro examination

Use MRC power scale

Standard practice to record the most caudal location which has normal motor and sensory function

32
Q

Anterior cord syndrome

A

Loss of power and pain sensation below injury, preserved touch and proprioception

33
Q

Posterior cord syndrome

A

Loss of sensation and prorioception, power preserved

34
Q

Brown-Sequard syndrome

A

Hemisection of cord

Ipsilateral paralysis + sensory loss below injury

Contralateral loss of pain and temperature

35
Q

Central cord syndrome

A

Tyoically seen in the elderly following extension injuries to the neck

Affects upper limbs more than lower, variable sensory deficits

Incomplete tetraparesis/ quadraparesis

36
Q

Epidemiology of head injuries

A
  • Commonest cause of death and disability in those aged 1-40 in UK
  • 1.4 million ED attendances/ yr
  • 70-88% male
  • 33-50% <15yrs
  • 95% have GCS 13-15 on arrival
  • 0.2% die due to head injury
37
Q

Classification of head injury based on GCS

A

Mild: 13-15

Moderate:9-12

Severe: =<8

38
Q

Normal ICP?

A

10mmHg

39
Q

Consequences of uncal herniation

A

Compression of 3rd cranial nerve: ipsilateral pupillary dilation then loss of eye movements

Compression of ipsilateral corticospinal tracts in the brainstem leading to contralateral hemiparesis

40
Q

Consequence of foramen magnum/ tonsillar herniation

A

Decreased ocnsciousness

Decorticate posturing

Irregular respiration

Loss of brainstem reflexes

Bilateral fixed + dilated pupils

Cushing’s response: high BP, bradycardia, abnormal breathing

41
Q

Most common vessel causing extradural haematoma

A

Middle meningeal

42
Q

Typical presentation of patient with extradural haematoma

A

Lucid >> aware >> lucid

*Although this is spoken about in the literature it is not overly common*

  • Likely to have skull fracture, temporal bone most common
43
Q

Shape of bleed on CT following extradural haematoma

A

Lens shape - blood can only travel so far when outside the dura mater

44
Q

What vessels are responsible for subdural haematomas?

A

Tearing of bridging veins between brain and dura

Bleeding involves entire surface of brain

May be sub-acute/ chronic e.g. in elderly or alcoholics

45
Q

Why are subdural bleeds more common in people with smaller brains e.g. alcoholics?

A

The brain is smaller and the veins are stretched which makes them more prone to bleeding

46
Q

Discuss coup-contre coup injuries

A

Coup: region affected directly related to external injury site

Contre-coip: region affected is opposite site of external injury, due to movement of the brain within the skull

47
Q

Why is it so important to manage pain following head injury?

A

Pain can lead to raised ICP

48
Q

Algorithm for patients requiring CT head following head injury

A
49
Q

Risk factors for c-spine injury

A
  • Age >65
  • Known chronic spinal conditions e.g. ankylosing spondylitis, rheumatoid arthritis
  • Dangerous mechanism of injury e.g.
  • Fall from height of greater than 1m or 5 steps
  • Axial load to the head e.g. diving, falling on to head
  • High speed motor collision
  • Accident involving motorised vehicles
  • Bike collision
  • Horse riding accidents
50
Q

Imaging based on Canadian c-spine rules

A
51
Q

Problems with c-spine immobilisation

A

Collars significantly raise ICP

Long boards and collar cause pain and tissue ischaemia

Supine immobilisaiton causes deterioration in resp. function

52
Q

What are the nexus criteria?

A

If all of the following 5 criteria are negative, the patient is classified as having a low risk of c-spine injury

No focal neurological deficit

No midline cervical tenderness

Normal level of alterness

No intoxication

No painful distracting injury - an injury so painful that it distracts the patient from a neck injury

53
Q

How to manage a patient in whom a c-spine injury cannot be excluded clinically

A

Plain x-rays fon’t detect all c-spine fractures

  • 3 view x-ray: lateral, AP and odontoid peg (open mouth) view
  • CT scan should not be undertaken lightly as it exposed patient to 14x dose of radiation compared to x-ray
  • MRI indicated if there is any neurology referable from the cervical spine or if there is severe pain despite normal CT

*NICE guidelines do not recommend use of MRI to clear c-spine

54
Q

Pitfalls of c-spine management

A

Patients holding their head in a fixed flexed position - do not try and get their head in a collar >> can cause paralysis in patients with ankylosing spondylitis

Fractures are often missed in patients with distracting injuries/ intoxication

55
Q

Red flags of acute lower back pain

A
  • Onset age <20 or >55
  • Non-mechanical pain e.g. unrelated to time or activity
  • Thoracic pain
  • Previous hx or cancer, steroids or HIV
  • Fever, night sweats or weight loss
  • Widespread neuro symptoms
  • Structural spinal deformity
56
Q

What is spondylolisthesis?

A

Forward slippage of one vertebrae onto another

Most common:

  • L4 on to L5
  • L5 on to S1

Usually occurs in young people

57
Q

Vertebrae

A
  • 7 cervical vertebrae
  • 12 thoracic vertebrae
  • 5 lumbar vertebrae
  • Sacrum
  • Coccyx
58
Q

Where does the spinal cord begin?

A

Caudal medulla oblongata at the level of the foramen magnum

59
Q

Which spinal tracts can be clinically assessed?

A

Corticospinal

  • Located in the posterolateral cord
  • Function - motor innervation
  • Decussates in the medulla
  • Injury to this tract causes ipsilateral weakness

Dorsal columns

  • Located in the posteromedial cord
  • Function - light touch and proprioception
  • Decussates in the medulla
  • Injury causes ipsilateral loss of sensation

Spinothalamic

  • Located in the anterolateral cord
  • Function - pain and temperature innervation
  • Decussates immediately after entering spinal cord
  • Injury causes contralateral loss of pain and temperature
60
Q

Can a patient be diagosed with a complete spinal cord injury in the acute setting?

A

No - spinal shock will affect the function so important to wait before diagnosis is made

61
Q

Spinal levels

A
62
Q

What is neurogenic shock?

A
  • Results from damage to descending sympathetic pathways in the cervical and upper thoracic spinal cord
  • Results in loss of vasomotor tone and cardiac sympathetic innervation

Leads to hypotension and bradycardia/ absence of tachycardia as vagal tone dominates

Hypotension may not be corrected by fluid resus alone - may need vasopressors

63
Q

What is atlanto-occipital dislocation?

A

AKA internal decapitation

Sepatation of the spinal cord from the skull base

70% cases result in immediate death

Most commonly due to high speed RTA

Common cause of death in shaken baby syndrome

64
Q

What is the atlas?

A

C1 - first cervical vertebrae, just after the occiput

65
Q

What causes cervical spine fractures?

A

Secondary to exaggerated flexion/ extension

Direct trauma

Axial loading (force directed through the top of the head and through the spine)

66
Q

Why is the c-spine more susceptible to injury?

A

Highly mobile with relatively small vertebral bodies

Supports the head which is heavy

67
Q

Which are the most commonly fractured vertebrae?

A

C2 and C7

68
Q

Most common mechanism for c-spine fractures

A

Flexion

69
Q

What is the mechanism of a hangman’s fracture?

A

Hyperextension injury e.g. high speed RTA

Causes fracture of the posterior elements of C2

70
Q

What is spinal shock?

A

Loss of sensation accompanied by motor paralysis with initial loss but gradual recovery of reflexes

71
Q

MRC power grading

A
  • 5 = normal power
  • 4 = weak
  • 3 = movement against gravity
  • 2 = movement with gravity eliminated
  • 1 = flicker of movement
  • 0 = complete paralysis
72
Q

Key myotomes

A
  • C5: shoulder abduction, deltoid
  • C6: elbow flexion, biceps
  • C7: elbow extension, triceps
  • C8: wrist and finger flexion
  • T1: finger abduction, interossei
  • L2: hip flexion, iliopsoas
  • L3-4: knee extension, quadriceps
  • L4-S1: knee flexion, hamstrings
  • L5: ankle and hallux dorsiflexion, extensor hallucis longus
  • S1: ankle plantarflexion, gastrocnemius
73
Q

Indications for doing a CT spine as opposed to a 3-view x-ray

A
  • Elderly patients
  • Patients with known or presumed cervical spine degenerative disease
  • GCS <13
  • Intubated patients
  • Inadequate plain film series
  • Suspicion or certainty of abnormality on plain film series
  • Patients being scanned for head trauma and/or multi-region trauma as well
74
Q

How to assess spinal x-rays

A

Confirm details, time and date x-ray taken

Ensure 3 views available for c-spine

  1. Alignment of vertebrae: no ‘steps’ should be visible - straight lines or curves
    - Alignment on the AP film can be assessed by looking at the spinous processes and tips of the transverse processes
  2. Look at interspinal distances: should be roughly similar in height throughout cervical spine with no obvious loss of height
  3. Assess the integrity of each vertebrae: bodies, laminae and pedicles - don’t stop searching once an abnormality is found
  4. Soft tissue: pre-vertebral soft tissue (anterior to vertebral bodies, best assessed using lateral view, tissue apprears as light grey - widening of this space may inficate pre-vertebral haematoma - this should raise suspicion of cervical fracture
  • Alignment: assess the alignment of all relevant views (e.g. lateral, AP and open mouth).
  • Bones: assess each of the vertebrae, inspecting the cortex for irregularities.
  • Cartilage: assess the height of each intervertebral disc.
  • Soft tissue: assess the pre-vertebral soft tissue width, for evidence of swelling
75
Q

1st line imagine of patients with suspected spinal injuries >65yrs

A

CT - x-ray is not done as it will be difficult to interpret due to degenerative changes

Acute (22 decks)

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