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BIOL 3290 > HALLUCINOGENS: SEROTONIN ENHANCERS > Flashcards

HALLUCINOGENS: SEROTONIN ENHANCERS Flashcards

12 questions

1
Q

_____: common neurotransmitter of CNS, occurs most commonly in upper brain stem

regulates body temp., sleep and sensory perception

____-enhancing drugs are powerfully hallucinogenic

A

serotonin

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2
Q

______: low woody shrub
member of Dogbane family
native to tropical West Africa
highest concentration of hallucinogen in root- long tradition of shamanistic use
incorporated into object ritual, said to make people reveal secrets of their former lives
an important entheogen for Bwiti movement (religious revitalization in response to colonization)
____ root is used to cause visual hallucinations of the superior divinity (Bwiti)
active principle: ibogaine, potent serotonin enhancer
produces strong visual/auditory hallucinations and interferes with motor skills (highly suggestible, blank expressions, sensations of flying)
investigated for use in opiate addiction therapy, because it calms opiate receptors (reducing painful withdrawal symptoms)

A

iboga

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3
Q

where is the highest concentration of hallucinogen found in iboga?

A

in the root, powdered iboga root is the main form used

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4
Q

iboga root is integral to Bwiti movement, where is it incorporated?

A

into object ritual, people take it to reveal secrets of former life, connect them to Bwiti (superior divinity), and communicate with spirit world

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5
Q

what is the active principle of iboga?

A

ibogaine, potent serotonin enhancer

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6
Q

what does ibogaine do to a person?

A

causes visual/auditory hallucinations, interferes with motor skills
highly suggestible, blank expressions, sensations of flying

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7
Q

why is ibogaine being researched for use in opiate addiction therapy?

A

it calms opiate receptors, reducing painful withdrawal symptoms

also been advocated for use in alcohol, amphetamine, nicotine dependance

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8
Q

______: “magic” mushrooms
traditionally used in Central America- widely used as entheogens by Aztecs, Mayan (known as teonanacatl)
number of genus
Spanish forced indigenous use underground when they invaded, caused shamanistic/cultural use to mostly cease in CA (punishable by death)
active principles: psilocybin and psilocin (serotonin mimics)
- cause muscle relaxation, dilation of pupils, visual/auditory hallucinations
interacts with brains’s default mode network (DMN), switches it “off” and encourages intercommunication between different regions of the brain, can treat OCD, depression, anxiety, addiction
forging new pathways could “reboot” destructive patterns of thinking!

A

psilocybin mushrooms

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9
Q

what did the Aztecs call psilocybin mushrooms?

A

teonanacatl, “divine flesh”

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10
Q

why was the use of psilocybin mushrooms pushed underground?

A

when the Spanish invaded, Roman Catholics thought they were “devices of the devil” and punished their use by death

indigenous use went underground, and shamanistic/cultural use mostly disappeared

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11
Q

when did the rest of the world discover teonancatl use?

A

mid-1950s

R. Gordon Wasson (retired banker from J.P Morgan) became intrigued by their use, witnessed shamanistic use in 1955

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12
Q

traditional teonancatl use persisted into the 20th century in the Oaxaca region, where is this?

A

Mexico

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13
Q

who’s experience with psilocybin mushrooms was published in Life magazine in 1957, exposing the rest of the world to its use… traditional use eventually compromised by people flocking to try to use it recreationally

A

R. Gordon Wasson

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14
Q

what are the active principles of psilocybin mushrooms?

A

psilocybin and psilocin
potent serotonin mimics

cause muscle relaxation, dilation of pupils, visual/auditory hallucinations
interacts with brains’s default mode network (DMN), switches it “off” and encourages intercommunication between different regions of the brain, can treat OCD, depression, anxiety, addiction

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15
Q

psilocybin was first synthesized in 1958, by Albert Hoffman in Switzerland
then psychologist Timothy Leary and his colleague at Harvard, Richard Alpert, wanted to research its use as a psychotherapy… what happened after this?

A

their research turned into drug-taking sessions with researchers and undergraduate students… not good… caused therapeutical potential of psilocybin to be viewed as controversial (Schedule 1 drug)

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16
Q

what things has psilocybin shown great promise in treating? why?

A

interacts with brains’s default mode network (DMN), switches it “off” and encourages intercommunication between different regions of the brain,
DMN is overactive in clinically depressed patients

can treat OCD, depression, anxiety, addiction
forging new pathways could “reboot” destructive patterns of thinking!

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17
Q

______: genus includes a number of closely related SA trees, ___ theiodora is most commonly used as entheogen
snuff is prepared from inner bark of tree (only men use it, some tribes restrict it to shamans)
used to diagnose illnesses, in prophecy and divination, magical purposes
two ways of preparing snuff, snuffed through reed or bird-bone tubes
active principles: various tryptamine alkaloids… mostly DMT and smaller amounts of B-carboline alkaloids (ex: harmine) -> inhibitors of MAO enzyme
DMT gives psychoactive symptoms and harmine deactivates MAO (which usually deactivates DMT)… gives prolonged hallucinogenic effect
cause initial excitement, then nausea, numbness of limbs, twitching of facial muscles, lack of muscle coordination, visual hallucinations then deep sleep

A

virola (epena)

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18
Q

virola bark have long history of indigenous use in northern ______, believed that a spirit dwells within these trees

A

Amazonia

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19
Q

what are the two ways of preparing snuff from Virola?

A

1: bark stripping method
- outer bark is tripped, resin from inner bark is collected, thickened by boiling, leaves sediment that is dried and ground into fine powder

2: bark resin method
- bark is stripped in morning, re-visited in evening… blood-red resin is scraped away, then kneaded with water, strained, boiled into syrup, dried in sun and ground up

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20
Q

T/F: hallucinogenic principles of powdered snuffs come from Virola, but snuffs often contain other plant species as well

speculated that these other species added to increase hallucinogenic effect

A

true!

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21
Q

what are the two active principles of Virola snuff?

A

tryptamine alkaloids- particularly DMT
- serotonin enhancers

smaller amounts of B-carboline alkaloids (ex: harmine)
- inhibit MAO enzyme

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22
Q

how does the DMT-MAO combination enhance hallucinogenic effect?

A

DMT gives psychoactive symptoms and harmine deactivates MAO (which usually deactivates DMT)… gives prolonged hallucinogenic effect

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23
Q

______: SA leguminous tree
Orinoco River basin in Colombia and Venezuela
hallucinogen in highest concentration in the seeds, in entheogenic snuffs
snuffed through hollow reeds or bird-bone tubes
virola and ____ are NOT closely related plants but their snuffs are very chemically similar
contains both tryptamine alkaloids and B-carboline alkaloids

also contains bufotenine (serotonin enhancer)

A

yopo

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24
Q

where do yopo trees grow?

A

Orinoco River basin

venezuela and colombia

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25
Q

where is the highest conc. of hallucinogen found in yopo trees?

A

the seeds!

used to make entheogenic snuff

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26
Q

_______ was the first European to witness the preparation and use of yopo snuff, during a botanical expedition to Orinoco in 1801

A

Baron von Humboldt

27
Q

how are the seed pods of yopo prepared to make snuff

A

seed pods moistened and allowed to ferment
once black, seeds are removed, mixed with cassava flour and snail shells (or other sources of mineral lime) to form “cake”
mixture is then roasted, dried, and powdered

28
Q

T/F: von Humboldt thought that the hallucinogenic properties of yopo snuff came from the yopo seeds

A

false! he thought it came from the snail shells mixed in

29
Q

T/F: virola and yopo are closely related plants, their snuffs are very chemically similar! (DMT and harmine + others)

A

false! they are NOT cloesly related, but their snuffs are still very similar!

30
Q

what other compound does yopo contain that virola does not?

A

bufotenine

first isolated from skin glands of toads!

31
Q

______: SA leguminous tree (same genus as yopo)
native to dry SE Andrean region (Chile/Peru/Argentina)
used as entheogenic snuff- dates back 5000 years!
dried seeds were smoked in a pipe, or powdered into a snuff
active principle: bufotenine (tryptamine alkaloid)

although chemically similar to yopo/(virola by default), experience is very different… abstract hallucinations for 20 mins in black and white ONLY

A

cebil

32
Q

even though cebil contains bufotenine (like yopo), why is the experience so different?

A

although chemically similar to yopo/(virola by default), experience is very different… abstract hallucinations for 20 mins in black and white ONLY

33
Q

T/F: virtually all 600 graves at a 5000 year-old gravesite in Chile contained tools dedicated to ritualistic use of cebil

A

true! entheogenic snuff, just like virola and yopo!

34
Q

cebil trees are the same genus as what other tree snuff?

A

yopo

35
Q

______: two closely related vine species
native to Amazon rainforest
used by Quechua tribe- named it “vine of the soul”
long history entheogenic use
taken traditionally in large family groups, with one person abstaining to babysit
very much a social affair!
three stages of hallucinogenic experience
two plant species used for beverage: stems of ________ vine and fresh leaves from chacruna shub
- other plant species can be added to enhance flavour, smell, increase hallucinogenic effect
beverage remains potent for about a month once made
active principles: B-carboline alkaloids (harmine, hamaline)
chacruna shrub contains DMT
DMT-MAO combination is what gives hallucinogenic effect
various _______ analogues have been developed (basically any two plant species that do the same DMT-MAO combination)

A

ayahuasca

36
Q

T/F: its believed that ayahuasca frees the soul from physical confinement, leaving it to wander and return to the body at will

said to liberate one from everyday life, offering visions of other realms and opening communications with ancestors

A

true!

37
Q

when ayahuasca is taken in large family settings, what is the traditional use?

A

music is played as everyone drinks beverage
some vomit, as drink is very unpleasant
hallucinations begin after 20 mins (bright colours, distortions of size/shape, visions of other realms, telepathic experiences within group)

“collective unconsciousness” of group normal

38
Q

what are the three stages of hallucinations experienced when taking ayahuasca?

A

1: spiralling phase

2: strong hearing, loss of motor control, strong visual distortions

3: sensation of flying

39
Q

what are the two plants used to make ayahuasca? which parts of each plant are used?

A

ayahuasca vine- dried stems and inner bark

chacruna shrub- fresh leaves

40
Q

_____: herbal brew, thickened/brown/bitter tonic

A

ayahuasca beverage

41
Q

what are the active principles in ayahuasca vine?

A

B-carboline alkaloids

harmine and hamaline

both inhibit MAO enzyme that destroys DMT!

42
Q

what are the active principles in chacruna shrub?

A

DMT- serotonin enhancer

43
Q

how does ayahuasca provide intense hallucinations?

A

DMT-MAO inhibitor combination

shrub gives hallucinations, vine doesn’t allow body to breakdown DMT that gives hallucinations

44
Q

_______/_____: climbing herbaceous annuals
Morning Glory family
native to Central/South America- grown in European/NA gardens
blue and white flowers
used as hallucinogens and medicinals by the Aztec, Mayan
seeds contain powerful hallucinogens
Spaniards barbarically suppressed their use
use remained underground, and survived until 20th century but was NOT known by anyone else!!
13 fresh seeds were ground and strained, the drank for rapid intoxication
active principles: lysgeric acid alkaloids- ergine and isoergine (potent serotonin enhancers)
genome does NOT contain lysergic acid pathway… fungi are colonized on leaves which then absorb the hallucinogenic alkaloids

A

ololiuqui or morning glories

45
Q

what does ololiuqui refer to? morning glory?

A

morning glory is the actual plant
ololiuqui are the seeds of the plant themselves

46
Q

why are morning glories grown in European and NA gardens?

A

because of their pretty blue and white flowers

47
Q

the Spaniards barbarically enforced their ban of ololiuqui use in Central/SA, so it went underground. It stayed so well hidden until the 20th century that anthropologists believed that the Aztec term ololiuqui was referring to which solanaceous species?

A

Datura!

48
Q

how is the hallucinogenic drink containing ololiuqui prepared?

A

13 fresh seeds are collected
they’re finely ground, soaked in cold water for a few minutes, then strained
mixture is then drunk to cause rapid intoxication

49
Q

powerful & grotesque hallucinations, bouts of giddiness and laughter, lassitude, euphoria, deep sleep, complete loss of awareness, highly suggestible
are all the symptoms of _______?

A

ololiuqui intoxication

50
Q

Albert Hofmann was employed to discover the active principles of ololiuqui seeds, while working on understanding fungal ergot… what was he surprised to learn about the seeds?

A

they contained the same active principle!

like fungal ergot, ololiuqui seeds contained lysergic acid alkaloids- ergine (lysergic acid amide) and isoergine!

potent serotonin enhancers!

51
Q

what are the two serotonin enhancers found in ololiuqui seeds?

A

ergine and isoergine
lysergic acid alkaloids

52
Q

T/F: the genome of morning glories does NOT contain the lysergic acid pathway

A

true!
fungi are colonize the secretory glands on leaves of morning glory… which then absorb the hallucinogenic alkaloids and transport them throughout the plant (to the ololiuqui (seeds!))

53
Q

_________: fungal pathogen of cereal crops
forms schlerotia (hardened fungal structure)
produces ergot alkaloids (ergine, ergonovine, ergotamine)
Albert Hofmann investigated ergot alkaloids in 30-40s… semi-synthesized LSD from it in 1938!

A

fungal ergot

54
Q

_____: semi-synthesized from fungal ergot
less than 0.1 mg produces potent hallucinogenic effect
early hopes were that it could be used as a pharmacological aid in psychoanalysis/therapy but sensationalized reporting resulted in the end of this research
turned into a recreational drug in 60s in New York and Harvard (professors)
declared an illegal substance in the US (schedule I drug) in mid-1960s

A

LSD
(+)-lysergic acid diethylamide

55
Q

how does fungal ergot create schlerotia?

A

attacks maturing cereal grain, producing hardened fungal mycelium

56
Q

constriction of fine arteries, contraction of smooth muscle, powerful visual-auditory hallucinations, delirium and confusion are all symptoms of…

A

fungal ergot

ergot alkaloids

57
Q

_____ was administered to women during childbirth, to induce labour and control uterine hemorraging; _____ (its semi-synthetic) is used for the same purpose today

A

ergonovine
methylergovine

58
Q

______ was used to treat migraines; semi-synthetic _____ remains an important anti-migraine agent!

A

ergotamine
dihydro-ergotamine

59
Q

methylsergide- treats migraines and headaches
lisuride- treats Parkinson’s
bromocriptine- Parkinson’s, pituatary gland diseases and tumors, type II diabetes)
cabergoline- same as bromo.
ergotoxine- mixture of 3 ergot alkaloids, used to treat cognitive impairment

are all examples of what…

A

important semi-synthetic ergot alkaloids

60
Q

_____ first synthesized LSD in 1938

LSD is one of four stereoisomers, 3 of which are psychoactively inert and the fourth is the potent hallucinogen

A

Albert Hofmann

61
Q

T/F: Hofmann found out LSD is powerfully hallucinogenic by accident

A

true! he accidentally contaminated himself and experienced crazy hallucinations

62
Q

how much LSD did Hofmann take when he planned out an experiment to test his theory that it was hallucinogenic

A

0.25 mg

which is crazy! its now known that less than 0.1 mg produces a potent hallucinogenic effect, so 0.25 mg is a very high dose

63
Q

how did Briton Micheal Hollingshead mix LSD to take it regularly? who did he contact with his findings and how did that impact the Harvard scandal?

A

mixed LSD with cake icing, made 5000 teaspoon doses and took them regularly

he contacted Timothy Leary from Harvard who was already researching psilocybin mushrooms and introduced him to LSD

Leary started experimenting at Harvard… led to drug-taking sessions involving faculty AND students… university eventually got rid of him

he continued his “research” in a New York mansion and then moved to Mexico when it was illegal

BIOL 3290 (13 decks)

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