Grammar Flashcards
Could have + past participle means that something was possible in the past, or you had the ability to do something in the past, but that you didn’t do it.
I could have stayed up late, but I decided to go to bed early.
They could have won the race, but they didn’t try hard enough.
Julie could have bought the book, but she borrowed it from the library instead.
Couldn’t have + past participle means that something wasn’t possible in the past, even if you had wanted to do it.
I couldn’t have arrived any earlier. There was a terrible traffic jam (= it was impossible for me to have arrived any earlier).
We use could have + past participle when we want to make a guess about something that happened in the past. In this case, we don’t know if what we’re saying is true or not true. We’re just talking about our opinion of what maybe happened
Why is John late?
He could have got stuck in traffic.
He could have forgotten that we were meeting today.
He could have overslept.
Should have + past participle can mean something that would have been a good idea, but that you didn’t do it. It’s like giving advice about the past when you say it to someone else, or regretting what you did or didn’t do when you’re talking about yourself.
I should have studied harder! (= I didn’t study very hard and so I failed the exam. I’m sorry about this now.)
I should have gone to bed early (= I didn’t go to bed early and now I’m tired).
Shouldn’t have + past participle means that something wasn’t a good idea, but you did it anyway.
I shouldn’t have eaten so much cake! (= I did eat a lot of cake and now I don’t feel good.)
We can also use should have + past participle to talk about something that, if everything is normal and okay, we think has already happened. But we’re not certain that everything is fine, so we use ‘should have’ and not the present perfect or past simple. It’s often used with ‘by now
His plane should have arrived by now (= if everything is fine, the plane has arrived).
John should have finished work by now (= if everything is normal, John has finished work).
Because ‘would’ (and will) can also be used to show if you want to do something or not (volition), we can also use would have + past participle to talk about something you wanted to do but didn’t.
I would have gone to the party, but I was really busy.
(= I wanted to go to the party, but I didn’t because I was busy. If I hadn’t been so busy, I would have gone to the party.)
CAUSATIVE VERBS
LET = PERMIT SOMETHING TO HAPPEN
Grammatical structure:
LET + PERSON/THING + VERB (base form)
I don’t let my kids watch violent movies.
Mary’s father won’t let her adopt a puppy because he’s allergic to dogs.
Our boss doesn’t let us eat lunch at our desks; we have to eat in the cafeteria.
Oops! I wasn’t paying attention while cooking, and I let the food burn.
Don’t let the advertising expenses surpass $1000.
Remember: The past tense of let is also let; there is no change!
Note: The verbs allow and permit are more formal ways to say “let.” However, with allow and permit, we use to + verb:
I don’t allow my kids to watch violent movies.
Our boss doesn’t permit us to eat lunch at our desks.
CAUSATIVE VERBS
MAKE = FORCE OR REQUIRE SOMEONE TO TAKE AN ACTION
Grammatical structure:
MAKE + PERSON + VERB (base form)
After Billy broke the neighbor’s window, his parents made him pay for it.
My ex-boyfriend loved sci-fi and made me watch every episode of his favorite show.
The teacher made all the students rewrite their papers, because the first drafts were not acceptable.
Note: When using the verbs force and require, we must use to + verb.
The school requires the students to wear uniforms.
“Require” often implies that there is a rule.
The hijacker forced the pilots to take the plane in a different direction.
“Force” often implies violence, threats, or extremely strong pressure
CAUSATIVE VERBS
HAVE = GIVE SOMEONE ELSE THE RESPONSIBILITY TO DO SOMETHING
Grammatical structure:
HAVE + PERSON + VERB (base form)
HAVE + THING + PAST PARTICIPLE OF VERB
Examples of grammatical structure #1:
I’ll have my assistant call you to reschedule the appointment.
The businessman had his secretary make copies of the report.
Examples of grammatical structure #2:
I’m going to have my hair cut tomorrow.
We’re having our house painted this weekend.
Bob had his teeth whitened; his smile looks great!
My washing machine is broken; I need to have it repaired.
Note: In informal speech, we often use get in these cases:
I’m going to get my hair cut tomorrow.
We’re getting our house painted this weekend.
Bob got his teeth whitened; his smile looks great!
My washing machine is broken; I need to get it repaired.
CAUSATIVE VERBS
GET = CONVINCE/ENCOURAGE SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING
Grammatical structure:
GET + PERSON + TO + VERB
How can we get all the employees to arrive on time?
My husband hates housework; I can never get him to wash the dishes!
I was nervous about eating sushi, but my brother got me to try it at a Japanese restaurant.
The non-profit got a professional photographer to take photos at the event for free.
CAUSATIVE VERBS
HELP = ASSIST SOMEONE IN DOING SOMETHING
Grammatical structure:
HELP + PERSON + VERB (base form)
HELP + PERSON + TO + VERB
After “help,” you can use “to” or not – both ways are correct. In general, the form without “to” is more common:
He helped me carry the boxes.
He helped me to carry the boxes.
Reading before bed helps me relax.
Reading before bed helps me to relax.
What are the differences among Alike, Like and Similar? How to distinguish among Alike, Like and Similar. Let’s see the following examples.
Similar: (Adjective) Something is almost the same.
Alike: (Adjective) Very similar (people look or behave)
Like: (Preposition) Similar to someone or something.
My book is like yours
My book is similar to yours
Our books are alike.
Our books are similar.
USING EVEN, EVEN IF, EVEN THOUGH
Even
We use even when we want to express a surprising extreme or when we want to say that something is more than we expect. For example,
“She’s rude to everyone. She’s even rude to me.“
“He gets up early even on Sundays.“
Even If
We use even if when we’re talking about an unreal situation. We use it when we’re speculating or when we don’t consider something as a fact.
“I’m going out tomorrow even if it’s raining.”
In this situation, I don’t know if it’s going to rain tomorrow or not, but I’m still going out.
Even Though
We use even though when we’re talking about a real situation. We use it to express a fact or when we think something is true.
Let’s look at how the meaning changes when we use even though instead of even if in the examples I used above:
“I’m going out right now, even though it’s raining.”
In this case, I know it’s raining and I don’t care. I’m going out anyway.
Present simple use
We use present simple for habits or actions that we repeat regularly:
I wash my hair every day.
I never go to the library.
I go to the library on Saturdays.
Permanent situations or things that are always or often true
I don’t drink coffee.
She’s very tall.
I have two brothers.
Water boils at 100 degrees.
I like soup
Can, can’t – use
Ability
We use can/can’t to talk about ability in the present (=things that we know how to do).
Laura can sing very well.
I can’t speak German.
Possibility
We use can/can’t to ask for permission or to say if something is possible or not.
Can I sit here?
You can’t vote if you aren’t 18 years old.
I’m sorry but I can’t come to the party.
Ask for something
We use can/can’t to ask for something and to order in bars, restaurants, shops, etc.
Can you lend me some money?
Can I have some water, please?
Can I have a burger and a soda?
Present continuous
Actions happening now
We use the present continuous for things happening now, at the moment of speaking.
‘What are you doing?’ ‘I‘m watching TV.’
Actions happening around now
We use the present continuous for temporary things that are happening around now (=not at the moment of speaking but these days, or weeks, etc.)
I‘m reading a very good book at the moment. (=I’m not reading it at the moment I’m speaking, but I’m reading it these days.)
Now, these days, at the moment, etc.
We use the present continuous with time expressions that mean ‘now’ or ‘around now’: now, at the moment, at present, today, these days, this week, etc.
Present simple or continuous?
Usually or now?
We use the present simple for things that we usually do, and we use the present continuous for things that we are doing now.
I listen to the radio. (=I usually listen to the radio; it’s a habit.)
I‘m listening to the radio. (=I’m doing it now.)
I don’t usually watch documentaries, but I’m watching a documentary now.
Temporary or permanent?
We use present simple when a situation is permanent or present continuous when a situation is temporary.
I work in an office. (=Permanent situation.)
I‘m working in an office. (=Temporary situation.)
I live in Edinburgh. (=Permanent situation.)
I‘m living in Edinburgh. (=Temporary situation.)
What do you do?/What are you doing?
What does Erik do? (=What is his job?)
What is Erik doing? (=What is he doing now, at the moment of speaking?)
The imperative
Give instructions
Open the package carefully.
Connect the cable into the plug.
Give orders
Fasten your seatbelt.
Stop talking!
Run!
Offer something or invite someone to something
Have some cookies.
Come and sit with us.
Give advice
Get some sleep.
Tell her how you feel.
Go and have fun.
Give warnings
Don’t touch that cable.
Please, Stopthe car!
You can use let’s + verb to:
Make suggestions
(+) It’s very hot today. Let’s go to the swimming pool.
(-) Let’s not go out today. I’m very tired.
Past simple – use
Past finished actions or states
We can use the past simple to talk about past finished actions or states. We know and we often mention when these actions happened with a past time expression: yesterday, yesterday morning, last night, last week, two days ago, five years ago, etc.
Jessica called me last night.
Rachel was a very good writer.
Past repeated actions
We can use the past simple to talk about habits or repeated actions that happened in the past but don’t happen in the present. We often use adverbs or expressions of frequency (often, always, every day, etc.).
When I was a child, I ate sweets every day.
In school, I always played football during break time.
Verb + verb(ing)
Verbs + -ing
Some verbs in English are followed by another verb in the -ing form. The most common of these verbs are verbs of liking and disliking: love, like, enjoy, don’t mind, don’t like, hate. And keep, avoid, miss, understand, finish. If we use another verb after these verbs, it often takes the -ing form.
I love going to the gym.
I like reading.
I enjoy travelling.
I don’t mind cooking.
I don’t like doing homework.
I hate getting up early.
The second verb is in the -ing form in the past too.
When I was a child I hated going to school. (NOT I hated went to school.)
Using the verbs “to hate”, “to like”, and “to love”
The verbs hate, love, like, & prefer are usually followed by a gerund when the meaning is general, and by the infinitive when they refer to a particular time or situation. You must always use the infinitive with the expressions would love to, would hate to, etc. These verbs can also be followed by a that-clause or by a noun.
I love dancing.
I love to dance at the jazz club.
Verbs + to + infinitive
Many verbs in English are followed by to + infinitive. Some of these verbs are: forget, hope, learn, need, offer, plan, seem, manage, wait, help, ask, agree, remember, start, want and would like.
I forgot to turn off the light.
I hope to see you soon.
I‘m learning to drive.
We need to arrive early.
She offered to help us.
We are planning to go to France.
Remember to lock the door.
I want to go home.
I would like to buy a new computer.
The second verb takes the to + infinitive form in the past too.
I wanted to go home. (NOT I wanted to went home.)
would like
The verb would like (or ‘d like) is different from like. We use would like + to + infinitive and we normally use like + -ing verb to talk about general preference.
I‘d like to study English.
I like studying English.
The meaning is also different.
I‘d like to study English. (=I want to do it.)
I like studying English. (=I enjoy it.)
We use the question would you like… when we offer or suggest something.
Would you like a cup of coffee?
Would you like to dance with me?
There VS it
There
We use there to say when or where something is.
There are some dirty cups on the table.
There is a party tomorrow.
We use there to say that something exists or is happening.
There is a problem.
There was an accident.
Note that we use there the first time we mention something.
If we talk about the same thing again, we use it or they.
There are some cups on the table. But they are dirty.
There was an accident. It was horrible.
It
We use it to talk about something again in the conversation.
There is a party tomorrow. It will be fantastic!
We saw a snake in the forest. It was very big.
We use it to talk about times and dates.
It‘s my mum’s birthday today.
Let’s go home. It‘s very late.
It‘s four o’clock.
We use it to talk about the weather.
It‘s very windy.
It‘s a nice day.
It rained a lot yesterday.
It‘s four degrees.
We use it to talk about distance.
How far is it?
It‘s not very far.
It‘s a long way to the nearest petrol station.
It‘s 2 kilometres from the hotel to the station.
Note that we use far in negative sentences and questions, and we use a long way in affirmative sentences.
We use it’s + adjective + to + infinitive.
It’s nice to see you again.
It was difficult to find the hotel.
Some - any - a- an
A/an
We use a/an + singular countable noun.
I have a new car.
She has a brother and a sister.
We cannot use a/an before a plural noun or an uncountable noun.
I need to buy sugar. (NOT a sugar.)
We saw very beautiful places. (NOT a very beautiful places.)
Some/any
We use some and any before countable plural nouns or singular uncountable nouns.
He gave me some coins.
He didn’t give me any coins.
He gave me some money.
Some
We use some in positive sentences.
We cooked some cookies.
Any
We use any in negative sentences and questions.
She didn’t send me any messages.
Have you got any brothers or sisters?
But we use some in questions when we are asking for something or we are offering something.
Can I have some tea? (=I’m asking for some tea.)
Would you like some tea? (=I’m offering you some tea.)