Genetics Test Flashcards
Dna has code that makes us us. We are a collection of proteins and molecules that are made up by instructions of dna.
Dna has code that makes us us. We are a collection of proteins and molecules that are made up by instructions of dna.
Dn overriding code that makes up ______
RNA
Dna tells cell what to do by creating copies of ________
RNA
Dna is made up of ___ main components that make up a ______
3
Nucleotide
DNA structure
1 sugar and 1 phosphate and 1 nitrogenous base
Purine structure
Purine is double ring
Pyrimidine structure
Pyrimidine is single ringed
Purine and pyrimidine want to make
3 hydrogen bonds guanine cytosine
Antiparallel 5
Free phosphate 5 prime end
Antiparallel 3
Sugar 3 prime end
Available on opposite end of dna
Antiparallel
Why is free sugar important for antiparralell
phosphate connects to sugar 3 prime end. Make dna and rna on that prime end
Weakest bond is ________ in middle, bonds that hold sugars to phosphates are strong
Hydrogen
Why do hydrogen bonds need to be week?
they unzip like a zipper, replicate dna because of that
Rna vs dna is ______
Oxygen
Semi conservative half gets split in the middle and gets replicated
DNA replication and repair
DNA vs RNA
Dna missing oxygen on sugar
Dna is double stranded
Dna only found in nucleus, if not in nucleus foreigners broken down
Rna can leave nucleus to go to cytoplasm to break proteins
Dna holds genetic info, rna makes proteins
How is semi conservative right?
Heavy nitrogen tracks how strands replicated
_________ work on top of dna, tightly formed dna, release tension and unwined dna
Topoisomers
____________ breaks the hydrogen bonds down the middle, hydrogens want to make bonds
DNA Helicase
__________binding proteins prevent forming together to prevent replication
Single stranded
_______ lays down 10 nucleotides that are RNA based.
Rna primase
Process of RNA polymerase
Polymerase attach and do work
RNA not dna
Dna polymerase change rna nucleotides into Dna nucleotides
Dna polymerase 3 lays down code. Picks up nucleotides and put it in proper order
Dna polymerase 3 lays down code. Picks up nucleotides and put it in proper order
Lay down code in
Read code in
3’ - 5’
5’ - 3’
Bubble formed
3 prime lays down primer rna polymerase
Polymerase 3 lays down code
Non stop until end
Helicase unzips
Reading in 3 to 5, going from 5 to 3
______ can’t start process because dna process has to open up
Lagging strand
Lagging strand has to lay down primer and _____
code
_______ lay down code and new primer, small chunks made during dna replication
Okazaki fragments
By laying down primer and code _______ has to get rid of rna primers and get rid of code
okazaki frag polymerase 1
Phosphodiester need to be glue because dna poly 3 will do it but the gap has to be sealed
DNA ligase
enzymes that work on nucleic acids removes
helps in process of removing things that shouldn’t be there
Is an editor, so code is layed down
Exonuclease
Replication fork is unzipped part caused by ______
Helicase
Transcription rna polymerase to do _________
Transcription rna polymerase to do unraveling of dna
_____ transfers amino acids in sequence in order to lay out polypeptides
TRNA
Translation Stages same as transcription
Translation Stages same as transcription
transfers amino acid to polypeptide chain
TRNA
________ pairs with amino acid trna is responsible for carrying to ribosome
Anticodon
______ ______ variety of codons to prevent errors taking place in production of proteins
Wobble Hypothesis
RNA structure
Ribosomes are made of RRNA, 2 subunits come together and sandwich RNA
Ribosomes want to attach to the
Methylated cap
As ribosome moves across, a, p and e spot
A is..
T is..
E is..
A accepter TRNA comes in
p peptide bonds form
E TRNA is released
ribosome attaches to mrna at 5 prime end,
moves to AUG start codon,
anti codon AUC,
ribosome moves across and TRNA arrive at a spot.
Initiation
Elongation amino acids need to form a bond and needs energy.
What energy is used?
GTP
peptide bond forms,
TRNA released,
picks up amino acid,
cycle continues
Elongation
There is no TRNA that has anticodon for stop codon
Termination stop codon
TRNA goes away,
polypeptide goes away
Termination release factor
modifications add sugar, add phosphate, remove amino acid
Post translational
Eukaryotes 4 primary ways to control the expression of genes
Transcription
Post transcription
Translational
post translation
regulates gene being transcribed. Actual speed, or when its being transcribes (when needed)
Transcriptional
before MRNA can be released have to put a regulated cap. No enzymes to break so sits in stage until we need
Post transcription
one MRNA is released in cytoplasm protected by tail. Sits in cytoplasm until needed. regulate how fast it happens
Translational
produced polypeptide chain. Make it functional by folding/bending/binding. Example making of insulin
Post translational:
Skin is constantly being replaced Cells need different proteins like dna polymerase
example of
Dna replication
genes that control breakdown of lactose
Regulatory gene
Bacteria only makes a couple of enzymes because only made in
glycolysis
Sections of dna that code for sections of dna
Lac ____ and trip _____
Operons
section of dna that codes outside
Operon
- rna polymerase attaches and starts process of reading genes
Promoter is where start is - has a binding site
Regulatory gene different location where rna polymerase makes repressor molecule. - Prevented from making what we wanna make
Operator and promoter region
- Need enzyme to break lactose called beta galactosidase.
- Needs to go through transcription and translation for b galactosidase
Doesnt produce if not needed, operon turned off. - Presence of lactose turns on or off trans..
Lac Operon
permeability embeds itself in membrane in bacteria
gate to let lactose into cell
E.coli galactosidase permiase
breaks down glucose and galactose
Beta galacasidase
consume lactose easly
Lac z gene
repressor molecule
Lac i gene
consume lactose easly
Lac a gene
Genes can only turn on if _____ is present. Neg and pos
Lactose
If lactose is present its known as
inducer
Binds to repressor,
changes confirmation,
rna polymerase can make rna
Inducer
limiting amino acids. Body can produce it.
TRp operon
____ affect pigmentation example (heterochromia)
mutations
How do frogs get mutations?
Frogs absorb things through their skin, toxins get in
What is a positive effect of mutations?
- chimpanzee ancestors
- resistance to disease (covid)
mutation sub 1 letter
Substitution
no consequence and neutral no impact
Silent mutation
- Take out intron which is spliced out - change in nitrogenous base that gives the same amino acid. (wobble)
- Different letter, same amino acid.
C for U, still glycine.
Silent mutation
______ mutation change base
Missense
- One letter changes and changes amino acid.
GGC to AGC from gly to ser.
Might not be functional.
Missense
Example of Missense
sickle cell anemia gives blood round shape, makes it half moon shape. Doesnt come together the way its supposed to
Why do people who live where malaria is immune to malaria if you have sickle cell?
If yorue heterozygous for sickle cell and you live where malaria is present, you have sickle cells that dont carry nutrience for parasite. They dont get nutrience so you cant get malaria
- change nitrogenous base. Dont produce protein.
- Produce premature stop codon (AAG to UAG, Lys to Stop) (EXAMPLE not producing blood, body needs it)
Nonsense mutation
- delete or add nitrogones base.
- Everything gets moved
- Deletion deletes something
(UUUG to delete U to UUG) everything shifts over
Frameshift mutations
adds a letter
(AAG U to UAA GU) gets shifted again
stop codon possibility
Insertion
- larger scale, large chunk of DNA to another chunk
- Takes section of chromosome and swaps location with another chromosome
- Information is there located somewhere else
Translocation
flip things around
No info lost, gets flipped.
(abcdef to adcbef)
Inversions
corn colour change genes same chromosome but different location
Transposons
Induced can change
Radiation
Radiatio messes with how bonds are formed (dimers)
Thats why dental offices dont want to do xrays
Chemicals may or may not have affects. (AI sweeteners proteins get eliminated)
carcinogen can cause cancer (to prevent use sunscreen)
create hydrogen bond beside them instead of across
Dimers
made up of sugar, a phosphate group, and 4 nitrogenous bases
Nucleotides
Cells prevent ______ or permanent changes in DNA sequence
mutations
DNA fixing mispaired bases
Proofreading
build DNA in cells
DNA polymerases
transmits genetic info from parent to offspring
DNA nucelic acid
double strand dna copied to produce identical dna molecules (unzip, break weak hydrogen bonds
Dna replication
_____ are the lines, genetic info
Rungs
_____ made up of sugar and phosphate. Sugar is deoxyrubase, phosphate is acid
Backbone
Can only add nucleotides on ____ prime end
3’
_____ puts new “zippers” on each end, small fragments
Okazaki
messenger for dna and ribosomes
MRNA
DNA to RNA
DOGMA
Structural components for ribosome
RRNA
bring amino acids to ribosomes for protein synthesis
TRNA
One old strand and one new strand
semi conservative
single origin mostly A/T pairs. Makes dna easier to separate
Ecoli.
gene that can change function and structure of protein
mutation
To reproduce diploid chromosomes produce ______ which are haploid
gamates
why is lactose intolerant normal
mammals genes shut off so you can’t process lactose
Why can crops grow longer in snow
took genes from cod fish
S strain composed of ____
S strain composed of sugars
_____ strand non virulent pneumococcus, sick but survive
R strand
If a mouse is infected with an r strand, why will it survive if heated?
denatured protiens
compacts dna
cromatin
regulation of gene expression
histone
twisting of dna
positive and negative
supercoils
ends of chromosomes
protect genetic material
protective caps
telomers
reads same on both strands
ATGCAT
TACGTA
palindromic sequences
Seperate dna and rna
electrophoresis
- takes dna and heats, DENATURES, unravels dna,
- cooling freezes is for polymerase to ATTACHES TO OPEN SITE,
- taq polymerase synthesizes NEW DNA STRAND
Polymerase chain reaction
PCR
DNA sample collected
many copies made
broken down in pieces
arranged in correct order
genome assembled
Human Genome Project
Use bacteria and ________ to cut DNA in the spot.
endonucleases
________ replicate virus and virus spreads
Endonucleases replicate virus and virus spread
Restriction enzymes
- palindromic sequence and cuts DNA.
Bonds between phosphate and sugar, and hydrogen and nitrogenous bases
Restriction enzymes
- palindromic sequence and cuts DNA.
Bonds between phosphate and sugar, and hydrogen and nitrogenous bases
Enzymes add on _______ group and helps in where we cut
Methyl
Why do we use Plasmids for manipulation
less nucleotides
How are plasmids used in the production of insulin
- Cow pancreas extracts mL of insulin
- Restriction enzymes cut plasmid
- inserted genes for insulin
- glue and put inside bacteria.
- Plasmids produce insulin
in electriphoresis dna can move through
gel pores
smaller go further
If a wrong amino acid is incorporated, it can be recognized and corrected before the next amino acid is added to the growing polypeptide chain.
proof reading
Transcription has three stages
initiation, elongation, and termination.
transcription is the process of copying out the DNA sequence of a gene in the similar alphabet of RNA.
transcription is the process of copying out the DNA sequence of a gene in the similar alphabet of RNA.
The goal of transcription is to make a RNA copy of a gene’s DNA sequence.
The goal of transcription is to make a RNA copy of a gene’s DNA sequence.
template for RNA polymerase
polymerase builds an RNA molecule out of complementary nucleotides
uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).
Elongation
RNA transcript is complete.
transcript to be released from the RNA polymerase.
Termination
