Gender

Question 1

lakoff 1975

Answer 1

women's language weak
hypercorrect grammar e.g avoiding double negatives
over-apologising
empty adjectives e.g lovely
tag questions e.g arent you?
overuse of intensifiers e.g so
special lexicon e.g colour
less swearing 
lack a sense of humour

Question 2

kira hall

Answer 2

phone sex workers used lakoff’s features to seem more feminine

Question 3

economic and social research council 2017

Answer 3

500% increase in the word ‘fuck’ by women since the 1990s

Question 4

otto jespersen

Answer 4

investigated non-fluency features such as pauses and fillers
relies on evidence from literature and travellers
speculative and often dismissed as folk linguistics

Question 5

otto jespersen attitudes

Answer 5

women have a smaller vocab
women use ‘weak’ and ‘empty’ adjectives
women fail to finish sentences because they haven’t thought about what they’re going to sya
men are responsible for adding new words to the language
women have a damaging effect

Question 6

deficit model

Answer 6

women’s language is weak or contains weak traits
theory originates from otto jespersen’s book in 1922
men have more superior place within society - women’s speech inferior
women have a lack of something which makes their speech more inferior to men’s as theres’ is more desirable
women’s responsibility to change their language contradicts lakoff’s feminist views
men’s language is more powerful as unmarked forms are the norm biased towards men

Question 7

deficit features

Answer 7

women speak less
softer modal auxiliary verbs to express uncertainty
polite forms e.g euphemisms
indirect requests
question intonation in declarative statements to express uncertainty
hedging e.g sort of

Question 8

o’barr and atkins courtroom study

Answer 8

challenges lakoff
lower class men use lakoff’s language features
implies it is potentially got nothing to do with gender but power
‘powerless language’

Question 9

weakness of lakoff’s research

Answer 9

based purely on own observations
own experiences and opinions
didn’t carry out linguistic rigorous testing

Question 10

janet holmes

Answer 10

looked into way women are referred to affectionate nominatives
predominately from semantic fields of food and animals
‘sugar’ ‘cow’

Question 10

dale spender

Answer 10

culture of ‘male as norm’
men are dominant and women are add ons
men are introduced first, symoblic of their role
‘mothers and fathers’ women maternal role
‘mankind’ add to the norm

Question 11

gender neutral words

Answer 11

backlash of ‘history’
claim history is story of men
caused reshuffling and reclaiming of words e.g headteacher

Question 12

dominance model

Answer 12

examine language use in respect to men being more dominant

Question 13

schulz and lakoff

Answer 13

research into terms that women and men are referred to
terms to identify them as different
‘-ess’ suffix marks fenimine equivalent
semantic derogation - negative connotations e.g mistress conotation of prostitution

Question 14

zimmerman and west 1975

Answer 14

interruptions between men and women
men interrupted 96-100% of the time
small number of subjects; white, middle class, under 35

Question 15

zimmerman and west weakness

Answer 15

not a representative sample - research flawed and not necessarily investigating what they think they are investigating
research shows traits typical of middle-class conversations but maybe atypical of all conversations

Question 16

beattie

Answer 16

considered over 10 times the corpus of z and w
pretty much equal number of interruptions by men and women
much larger sample and representative - more accurate

Question 17

pamela fishman

Answer 17

conversations between men and women fail because of how men act
men use 1/3 of questions as women and minimal responses
women doing ‘conversational shitwork’

Question 18

stanley 1970s

Answer 18

number of insults for women against men
220 insults to describe promiscuous women
20 insults for promiscuous man

Question 19

tyger drew honey 2015

Answer 19

asked people in the street how they would describe a woman who slept with over 30 men vs man sleeping with over 30 women
men and women described the woman as ‘slag’ and ‘slut’
man was labelled ‘lad’

Question 20

jennifer coates

Answer 20

researched all male and all female groups
converse differently although topics similiar
techniques used by women to maintain conversation arent signs of inferior signs of intelligence

Question 21

victoria bergvall

Answer 21

discussing so called differences reinforces views they exist

Question 22

susan githens

Answer 22

women treated on norms of men
supports tannen
women invading seen as unfeminine
‘women and men have different styles, male is standard’ hurting both

Question 23

deborah jones

Answer 23

gossiping amongst women - ‘house talk’
scandal - discuss behaviours of others
bitching - expression of anger, just as relief
chatting - intimate form of gossiping where mutually disclose and nurturing takes place

Question 24

kuiper

Answer 24

all male talk amongst rugby team
challenges idea men are less supportive as they are in different ways
using insults to show solidarity

Question 25

kate millett

Answer 25

‘tone and ethos of men’s house culture is sadistic, power-orientated and latently homosexual, frequently narcissistic in its’ energy and motives’

Question 26

jane pilkington 1992

Answer 26

women aim for positive politeness

men are less supportive

Question 27

holmes research to development of model 1984

Answer 27

challenged lakoff affective tag questions used for care and consideration
referential tag questions softening and facilitative 51 women 39 men
70% compliments given 76% women
men other men 10%
women complimented on appearance
men on abilities and possessions

Question 28

tannen

Answer 28

high involvement (men) active role - leading ,back channeling ( yep, uh-uh)
high considerateness (women) speak more slowly and avoid talking at the same time as someone else
report talk (men) direct - reporting on something
rapport talk (women) - create and sustain friendships

Question 29

tannen sub cultures

Answer 29

advice v understanding - men find a solution rather than understand
orders v proposals - men use more imperatives, women use more ameliorated requests
status v support - men in control, women be supported
information v feelings - men factual information, women emotional overview
independence v intimacy - men independent, women intimacy
conflict v compromise - men conflict, women compromise

Question 30

difference model

Answer 30

different sub-cultures

men and women are inherently different

Question 31

hyde 2005

Answer 31

no significant differences in the difference in verbal ability between men and women

Question 32

the female brain book

Answer 32

women almost talk 3x as much as men

Question 33

liberman

Answer 33

the female brain book has no statistics to back it up

people ignored liberman’s views as the book already backed up stereotypes

Question 34

janet hyde

Answer 34

psychology of women and focused on gender differences in adolescences
technique of meta-analysis (combining findings from independent studies)
looked at whether same sex schools are better
differences in gender in certain areas but results negligible

Question 35

deborah cameron

Answer 35

gender only makes up lingusitic identity
different situations different gender 
performing gender
gender must be viewed differently to sex
so many variables so it is hard to construct research

Question 36

judith butler

Answer 36

theory of performativity
construct gender based on how you behave and language you use
language linguistically determines you

Question 37

northwestern uni in 2004

Answer 37

supports valentova and havlicek findings
lesbian gay and bisexual people showed no difference at birth in vowel production
chose to selectively adopt vowel productions of certain social groups
gay/bisexual men did not adopt vowel sounds from women
lesbian/ bisexual women did not adopt vowel sounds from men

Question 38

valentova and havlicek

Answer 38

czech linguists investigated someone’s perceived sexual orientation
whether or not tell a man sexuality based on aesthetics and voice
could detect based on voice and appearance
certain feminity in the voice of homosexual men elongated vowel /l/ e.g towel

Question 39

pennebaker 2007

Answer 39

396 uni students
186 men 210 women
30 secs ambient noise every 12.5 mins in conversations using EAR
estimated total number of words spoken assuming 17 hrs awake
most verbose - man 47000 daily
most economic - man 500 daily
sexes came out evenly 16,215 men, 15,669 women
average number about the same
depends on context
wider variation between same sex
lot of data - valid 
collected data on chatter patterns

Question 40

william leap

Answer 40

‘lavender linguistics’
sociolect of homosexuals
whole other language when homosexuals interact with heterosexuals and homosexuals with other homosexuals

Question 41

diversity model

Answer 41

more differences between genders than between them