G PSY CH 6 & 8 SG Flashcards
Learning
Is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.
Who were the major contributors to learning?
Pavlov, Skinner, & Bandura
What did Pavlov contribute to learning?
Classical Conditioning
What did Skinner contribute to learning?
Operant Conditioning
What did Bandura contribute to learning?
Observational Learning
What is classical conditioning?
A process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events.
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism.
Unconditioned response
A natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus.
Neutral stimulus
A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response.
Conditioned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response
The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus.
Higher/Second-order conditioning
Pairing a new neutral stimulus with the conditioned stimulus.
Acquisition
The initial period of learning.
Extinction
The decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery
The return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period
Stimulus discrimination
An organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar
Stimulus generalization
An organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the condition stimulus
Operant conditioning
Organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence
Law of effect
Behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated
Positive reinforcement
A desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior
Negative reinforcement
An undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior
Punishment
Always decreases a behavior
Positive punishment
You add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior
Negative punishment
You remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior
Shaping
We reward successive approximations of a target behavior
Primary reinforcer
Are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities
Secondary reinforcer
Has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary reinforcer
Continuous reinforcement
When an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior
Partial/Intermittent reinforcement
The person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired behavior
Fixed interval reinforcement schedule
A behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time
Variable interval reinforcement schedule
The person or animal gets the reinforcement based on varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable
Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
A set number of responses that must occur before the behavior is rewarded
Variable ratio reinforcement schedule
The number of responses needed for a reward varies
What are the limits to Operant Conditioning?
Instinctive drift tendency for animals to revert back to instinctive behavior illustrates importance of biology
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it
Classical and operant conditioning are what forms of learning?
Associative learning
Observational/Social learning
We learn by watching others and then imitating, or modeling, what they do or say
Models
The individuals performing the imitated behavior
Vicarious reinforcement
The model was reinforced for their behavior, you will be more motivated to copy them
Vicarious punishment
The model being punished, you would be less motivated to copy them
For observational learning to occur what needs to happen?
A learner needs to pay attention, needs to remember what was observed, reproduce the behavior, and then motivate to imitate
What is used in observational learning, but not classical and operant learning?
Cognition
What is learning consider?
Learning is neuroplasticity (experience can modify the brain)
Memory
The set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time
Encoding
We get information into our brains through a process
Automatic processing
If someone asks you what you ate for lunch today, more than likely you could recall this information quite easily
Effortful processing
It requires a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode the test material information
Semantic encoding
The encoding of words and their meaning
Visual encoding
The encoding of images
Acoustic encoding
The encoding of sounds, words in particular
Self-reference effect
The tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance
Storage
The creation of a permanent record of information
Sensory memory
The storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes (up to a couple of seconds)
Short-term memory (STM)
A temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory
Rehearsal
This moves information from short-term memory to long-term memory
Long-term memory (LTM)
The continuous storage of information (believe to be unlimited)
Explicit/Declarative memories
The memories we consciously try to remember, recall, and report
Episodic memory
The information about events we have personally experienced
Semantic memory
The knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts
Implicit/Non-declarative memories
The long-term memories that are not part of our consciousness
Procedural memory
Is often studied using observable behaviors
Retrieval
The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness
Recall
Is what we most often think about when we talk about memory retrieval: it means you can access information without cues
Recognition
It happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after encountering it again
Relearning
It involves learning information that you previously learned
Flashbulb memory
Clear memory surrounding an emotionally significant, shocking, or sometimes historic, event
Primacy effect
First few pieces of info
Recency effect
The last few pieces of info
Serial Position Effect
Remembering info based on its position in a list or series of information
Iconic
Quick visual impressions
Echoic
Copies of the sounds we hear
Hippocampus
Memory
Amygdala
Emotional memory
Working memory
The active processing of information in STM
What are some influences on memory?
-Sleep
-Stress
-Cues—memory triggers (e.g., senses)
-Context—easier to access when in same context
-Mood (state-dependent or mood congruence)
-Hunger
-Culture
-Disease (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease, CTE)
-Traumatic brain injury (TBI)
-Damage to hippocampus (disease, TBI, stroke, tumor)
Retrieval and forgetting
Retrieval is influenced, or in some cases blocked, by information we learn before and after a memory is made (interference) or (encoding/attention)
Proactive interference
The tendency for information learned in the past to interfere with the retrieval of new material
Retroactive interference
The tendency for recently learned information to interfere with the retrieval of things learned in the past
Memory Construction
Fill in blanks of memory
Misinformation effect
Incorporating bits and pieces of information learned after the fact
Rich false memories
Recollections of events that never occurred, which are expressed with emotions and confidence and include details
Eyewitness testimony
Not as reliable as individuals often think (Memory construction, Misinformation effect, Weapon focus: focus of attention is on the weapon, Anxiety and stress, Leading questions, Unconscious transference)
