Fractures Flashcards
Stress
External force applied to any cross sectional area
Stiffness
Ability of a material’s ability to resist an applied force
Strain
Deformation of a loaded material as compared to its original form.
Typically measured in length
Tensile Strain
a change in length longwise
Compressive Strain
shortening of the length
Shear
a stress is applied that results in a change from side to side
Bending
Combination of tensile and compressive loading forces
Torsion
Combination of compressive, tensile, and shear loading forces
Deformation
change in shape due to application of a force (stress)
Elastic Deformation
a reversible change in shape
Material returns to original shape when load is removed
Plastic Deformation
a permanent change in shape
Material does not return to original shape when load is removed
Yield Point
point when material begins to deform plastically
Strain exceeds the material ability to recover rendering it permanently deformed
Occurs between elastic and plastic deformation
Ultimate failure point
material cannot withstand anymore strain and fails
Porosity
ratio of volume of open space to volume of total bone
High Porosity
Long elastic phase
Lower yield point
Low Porosity
Steep and short plastic phase (brittle)
Viscoelastic
Increased speed of loading (stress application) increases material stiffness
Anisotropic
Elastic modulus is dependent upon the direction of loading (stress application)
Bone is stronger and stiffer in compression
Bone is weakest when shear stress is applied
Type 1 open fracture
Wound smaller than 1 cm
Typically created by bone fragment from inside that retracts back through skin
Mild/Moderate soft tissue contusion
Type 2 Open Fracture
Open wound greater than 1 cm in size
Mild soft tissue trauma without extensive soft tissue damage
No flaps or avulsion
Type IIIA Open Fracture
Adequate soft tissue for wound coverage
Large ST laceration/flap
Type IIIB Open Fracture
Extensive ST loss
Bone exposure
Stripped periosteum
Type IIIC Open Fracture
Arterial +/- nerve supply to distal limb compromised
Requires microvascular anastomosis or amputation
What is the first priority of Open Fracture Management?
Systemic Stabilization: Cover the wound and stabilize patient
Greenstick Fracture
Incomplete Fracture
Long Oblique
Length of fracture (mm) greater than 2.0 x diameter of diaphysis (mm)
What type of animal does a Physeal fracture occur in?
Young animals ONLY
Articular
Fracture runs through a joint surface
Displaced Fracture
If fracture ends do not line up then fracture is considered displaced
What are the goals of fracture fixation?
Restore length and alignment to promote healing and limb function
Minimize motion at fracture ends
Permit early ambulation with use of as many joints as possible during healing period
Balance the forces that promote bone healing versus those that promote bone resorption
Wolff’s Law
Bone remodels based on the forces that are applied
Bone remodels and thickens in response to increased sustained forces
Bone resorbs and weakens in response to decreased sustained forces
What are the advantages of Internal/External Fixation?
Variety of fixation options to promote stable repair
Can promote normal muscle/joint function during bone healing
Typically fewer rechecks than with external coaptation
Nothing external to monitor
What are the disadvantages of Internal/External Fixation?
Expense to clinic and owner
Requires training for appropriate application
May require second surgery for explanation
What are the advantages of External Coaptation?
Limited supplies necessary for placement
Need for highly specialized training is limited
Avoids prolonged surgical procedure
What are the disadvantages of External Coaptation?
Requires frequent rechecks ($$) and bandage changes
Limited effective applications
Risk of bandage morbidity preventing continued use
Immobilized joints
Indications for External Coaptation
Fractures below the know or the elbow: Minimally displaced fractures and those amenable to reduction
Non-articular fractures
Fractures expected to heal rapidly: Greenstick fractures
What fractures should not be casted?
Comminuted fractures
What kind of bone healing takes place with Open anatomic reduction/reconstruction?
Primary bone healing with less than 1 mm gap
What is required for articular fractures?
Open Anatomic Reconstruction
What is most appropriate for repair of transverse, oblique, segmental, and non or minimally comminuted fractures?
Open Anatomic Reconstruction
What should you consider when selecting implants?
Fracture type and location
Bone affected
Patient factors
Surgeon preference and experience
Primary Implants
Bone Plates
Interlocking Nails
External Skeletal fixators (ESF)
Secondary Implants
Kirschner wires (K-wires)
Cerclage wire
Interfragmentary screws
What is the most common material used for Bone plates?
Stainless steel
What material is better fatigue resistant for bone plating?
Titanium
Dynamic Compression Plate (DCP)
Screw holes designed to allow screw placement that promotes compression of fracture ends
Tightening of the screws moves fracture ends closer together
Limited Contact DCP
Contoured underside that allows stress to be more evenly distributed across plate
Less contact with bone = less disruption of periosteal vascularity
Locking Plates (LCP)
Threaded locking screw head locks into threaded screw hole on plate
What plate type is commonly used for MIPO?
Locking Plates (LCP)
What kinds of bones are Locking Plates good to use in?
Osteoporotic bone
Soft bone
Comminuted fractures
What is the advantage of Locking Plates?
Greater force if required to cause implant failure
Pull out of screws only happens under significantly higher forces
What are cannulated screws used for?
Hollow for driving over pins
What is the goal of using screws?
Achieve as much contact with bone with a significantly stable implant of minimal size
What is the rule for measuring screws?
Screw diameter should not exceed 40% of bone diameter when used in diaphyseal bone
What are Cancellous screws best used for?
Metaphyseal and epiphyseal bone
Characteristics of Cancellous Screws
Increased outer diameter to core diameter ratio
Deeper thread
Larger pitch
Characteristics of Cortical Screws
Decreased outer diameter to core diameter
More shallow thread
Decreased pitch
Core diameter
does not include the threads
Outer diameter
does include the threads
When do you use Cortical Screws?
Dense cortical bone
What forces do Cortical screws overcome?
Bending forces
Self-tapping screws characteristics
Fluted tip
Does not require tapping
What screws are most resistant to bending forces than Cortical screws?
Locking screws
Locking plates
Tightening of the screws “locks” the screw into the plate creating a construct that converts shear and bending stress into compressive forces at bone-screw interface
Lag Screws
Placed perpendicular across an oblique or sagittal fracture line to promote compression of the fracture ends
Lag Screw uses
certain articular fractures
oblique
causes compression across the fracture
Position Screws
Screw placed across a fracture line to hold fragments in place
No compression across the fracture is achieved
What is the application rule for conventional plates?
Stable repair requires screw purchase of at least 6 cortices above and below fracture
What is the application rule for locking plates?
Stable repair requires screw purchase of at least 4 cortices about and below fracture
Compression mode
Plate applied to achieve compression across the fracture
On what types of fractures do you use Compression mode?
Used for transverse or short oblique fractures
What type of bone healing is promoted with compression mode?
Primary bone healing
Neutralization Mode
Plates that are used in addition to primarily placed lag or positional screws
Plates act to protect/neutralize against shearing, bending, and rotational forces
Buttress Mode
Used in metaphyseal fractures to prevent collapse fractures to prevent collapse of the adjacent articular surface
Bridging Mode
Plate spans fractured area which cannot be anatomically reconstructed
Plate bears all load at level of fracture
What mode is used in biological osteosynthesis/MIPO?
Bridging Mode
Interlocking Nail
Internal fixation that combines benefits of a intermedullary rod and a plate
Interlocking Nail uses
Used to treat diaphyseal comminuted fractures
What can you not use an Interlocking Nail for?
fractures of the radius
What can you not use for fractures of the radius?
IM pin
Interlocking pin
What are the risks of internal fixation?
Implant Failure Osteomyelitis Impingement of nerves Osteopenia Delayed or Non-union Malunion
What is the rules for Orthopedic wire strength?
Thicker wire = increased tensile strength
Lower gauge = stronger wire
What do you use Orthopedic Wire for?
Mandibular fractues used with IM Pins, external skeletal fixators and plates
What type of fracture is a Tension Band used for?
Avulsion fractures
Some Osteotomies
Cerclage Wire
Wire placed circumferentially around bone column causing compression across fracture line
Rules for using Cerclage Wire
Use only on long oblique or spiral fractures
Fracture line greater than 2x the diameter of the bone
Place at least 2 cerclage wires
Place at least 0.5cm from fracture ends spaced 0.5-1x bone diameter apart
Place perpendicular to the bone
Leave 2-3 twists
What type of fracture do you use Cerclage and Skewer Pin
short oblique fractures
How do you place K-wire?
perpedicular to the fracture line
Tension Band Wire
Fixation used to neutralize the pull of muscles/tendons on the fracture fragment
Interfragmentary Wire
Placed like “Sutures” holding bone fragments together
Indications for Interfragmentary Wire
Simple Fractures of Flat, non-weight bearing bones that interdigitate
Mandibularly and maxillary fractures
Common name for Steinmann Pins
Intramedullary pins
Advantages of Steinmann Pins
Less expensive than plates/screws Less inventory \+/- Smaller surgical approach \+/- less surgical time Easy to remove if necessary Ideal for fractures that require less rigid fixation
Disadvantages of Steinmann Pins
Only resists bending forces
Pin migration
Limited application as a primary fixation implant
Kirschner Wires
Small Steinmann Pins that are easily bent
Intramedullary Pins
Placed in medullary cavity of bone to help restore length and maintain alignment
What forces do Intramedullary Pins resist?
Bending Forces
What fractures do you use Intramedullary Pins for?
Humerus, Femur, Tibia, Ulna, Metatarsals, and metacarpals
What are Intramedullary Pins contraindicated in?
Fractures of the radius
What must you avoid doing with Intramedullary Pins?
Avoid Penetrating the joint surface
What percentage of the canal should be filled with the Intramedullary pins and cerclage wire?
70%
What percentage of the canal should be filled with the Intramedullary pins and a plate?
35-40%
What are the indications for Cross Pinning?
Simple Transverse fractures close to the joint
Salter Harris type 1 and 2 in young animals
What are the rules for using Cross Pinning?
Pins cross above the fracture line
Diverging Pin technique
Technique used to stabilize Salter Harris 1 fractures of Proximal Humerus or Femoral Head to promote normal physeal anatomy and bone growth
External Skeletal Fixation
Uses percutaneous pins or wires attached to external construct external to stabilize fracture fragments
What type of bone healing does External Skeletal Fixation promote?
Secondary Bone healing
What are External Skeletal Fixations used for?
Fractures of the appendicular skeleton Spinal fractures/luxation Mandibular fractures Correction of angular limb deformities Limb lengthening Arthrodesis Joint Immobilization
External Skeletal Fixator Components
Smooth or threaded pins or wires
Pins are secured with specialized clamps and connecting bars
ESF Pin Types
Smooth Pins
Positive Profile
Negative Profile
Center vs. Threaded Pins
Positive Profile Pins
The threads of the pin are increase the outer diameter of the pin
Negative Profile Pins
The outer diameter is less than the core diameter due to the threads cutting into the core
What is the strongest Pin type?
Positive Profile Pin
What is the rule for the Pin diameter of the Tranfixation Pin Placement?
Pin diameter should be no more than 25% of the bone diameter
What is the ideal number of pins used for Transfixation Pin Placement?
3 pins per segment
What is the rule for Transfixation Pin Placement?
Pins should be placed 1/2 bone diameter away from fracture and each other
Clamps connecting the pins and rods should be at least 1 cm away from skin
Connecting rod should be as close to bone as possible
What strain types can external skeletal fixators counteract?
Tension
Rotation
Bending
Axial Compression
How do you increase the ESF rigidity?
Frame type (I-III) Double bar Interconnecting bar Reduce bone-connecting bar distance Pin distribution Increased number of pins Larger diameter of pins and connecting bar
How do you decrease ESF rigidity?
Frame type
Pin distribution
Decreased number of pins
Small diameter of pins and connecting bar
Dynamization
Planned decrease of the stability to allow increased axial loading of the fracture to enhance callus hypertrophy and remodeling of the fracture
Type 1A ESF
Unilateral-Uniplanar
Type 1B ESF
Unilateral-Biplanar
Pins are placed 60-90 degrees from each other
Interconnecting bars increase rigidity
What ESF types can be used on humerus and femur?
Type 1 A and 1B
Type 2A ESF
Bilateral-Uniplanar
Stiffer than Type 1
Type 2B ESF
Bilateral-Uniplanar with combination of full and half pins
Type 3 ESF
Bilateral-Biplanar
Stiffer than Type 1 or 2
Circular EFs
Wires connect to rings which are connected to rods
What are circular ESFs used for?
increase rod length over time for bone lengthening
Complicated Fractures of the tibia and radius
Correction of angular limb deformities
Hybrid Fixator
Utilizes components of linear and circular external skeletal fixators
What are Hybrid Fixators used for?
Metaphyseal fractures
ESF and Acrylic Frames Uses
Mandibular fractures
What breeds and species are ESF and Acrylic Fixators used in?
Toy breed dogs
Cats
Exotics
When do you recommend Dynamization?
6 weeks post repair
Advantages of ESF
Can be placed with minimal disruption of the fracture fragments
All implants removed once fracture has healed
Useful for grade II and III open fractures
Can be removed in stages to slowly increase the loading on bone
Cost associated is low compared to some devices
Disadvantages of ESF
Frequent rechecks required
Morbidity associated with skin-pin interface
Pin loosening
implant failure
External hardware poses risk to people/objects
Additional procedure for removal
ESF complications
Pin tract drainage Loosening of Pins/Wires Osteomyelitis Ring sequestrum Nerve vascular damage
What is Scapular fractures associated with?
Blunt trauma
Stable extraarticular fractures
fractures in the body that are protected and can be healed by themselves without surgical intervention
Unstable extraarticular fractures
Might be distraction of the fracture fragments or comminution
Intraarticular fractures
Fractures of the neck, acromion, and through the glenoid of the scapula
What is the most common fracture of young large breed animals?
Fractures of the glenoid tubercle
How do you repair a fracture of the glenoid tubercle?
lag screw or pin and tension band
What must you avoid when repairing a Scapular neck fracture?
Suprascapular nerve entrapment
What is Humeral condylar fracture associated with?
Incomplete ossification of Humeral Condyle
What breeds are predisposed to Humeral Condylar Fractures?
Spaniels
What portion is most commonly affected by Humeral Condylar Fracture?
Later Portion
What is the primary means of fixation for Humeral Condylar Fractures?
Lag screw and anti-rotational wire
What do you apply to Humeral Condylar T and Y fractures?
Plates
Monteggia Fractures
Fracture of the ulna with dislocation of the radial head
Type 1 Monteggia Fracture
Cranial displacement
What type of Monteggia Fracture is most common?
Type 1
What fractures are most common in young small breed dogs?
Radius/Ulna fractures
What is the differential diagnosis for Distal Diaphyseal Radius/Ulna Fractures in older large breed dogs?
Neoplastic disease
What is a common fracture associated with trauma?
Metacarpal and Metatarsal fractures
How do you manage Metacarpal and Metatarsal fractures?
Plantar/palmar splints
What is the treatment rule if you have more than one metacarpal fracture?
Surgery
What is the treatment rule if you have fractures of Metacarpals 3 and 4?
Surgery
What is the treatment for fractures of all metacarpals?
Surgery
What fractures are seen with Hit By Car Trauma?
Pelvic Fractures
What are important considerations for Pelvic Fractures?
Evaluate for life threatening injuries
Image thorax and abdomen
Perform thorough neuro exam
What are some complications of Pelvic Fractures?
Malunion with pelvic canal narrowing
Entrapment of sciatic nerve in callus
Nonunion
What is conservative management of Pelvic Fractures?
6-8 weeks cage rest
What are the most common sites of Spinal Fractures and Luxation?
T3-L3 and L4-L7
What is the Best modality for detecting bony lesions?
CT
What is the best modality for assessment of spinal cord changes within canal and spinal cord compression?
MRI
What are the surgical goals for Spinal fractures and luxations?
Decompression of spinal cord
Stabilization of vertebral column
Four A’s of Systematic Assessment?
Apposition
Alignment
Apparatus
Activity
What is the average healing time of Fractures?
6-8 weeks
Factors affecting bone healing include
Fracture configuration/severity Soft tissue damage Stability of repair Presence of infection Patient factors Compliance
Fracture Healing Complications
Delayed Union
Malunion
Nonunion
Delayed Union
Healing is prolonged beyond normal expected time
Fracture line remains evident with feathery/wooly ends
Callus is visible
No sclerosis of bone ends
Malunion
Failure to re-establish normal form and function in the face of healing
Quadriceps Contracture
Complication associated with prolonged immobilization of the distal femur in young patients due to Muscle fibers being replaced by fibrous tissue
What type of fracture is associated with Quadriceps Contracture?
Distal Femoral Fractures
Disuse Osteoporosis
Decreased in stress application to the bone results in increased osteoclast activity
Can occur with casts and excessively strong implants/fixators
What is Ligamentous Laxity associated with?
Muscle atrophy from disuse or immobilization causing loose ligaments and joint instability
What is associated with improper casting/splinting of elbow/antebrachial fractures?
Digital Flexor Contracture
Primary Bone Neoplasia
Osteosarcoma
Chondrosarcoma
Fibrosarcoma
Hemangiosarcoma
Metastatic Bone Neoplasia
Multiple Myeloma
Lymphoma
What breed are represented with Osteosarcoma?
Large and Giant Breed dogs
What is the Bimodal age distribution of Osteosarcoma?
18-24 months
Greater than 7 years
Where is the predilection site for Osteosarcoma?
Metaphyseal region of long bones
What are the radiographic changes seen with Osteosarcoma?
Cortical lysis
Periosteal reaction
+/- Mineralization of surrounding soft tissues
Loss of trabecular pattern
Lack of distinct border between normal and abnormal bone
What is common in young animals?
Bone cysts
What is the gold standard for diagnosing Osteosarcoma?
Biopsy
What is present in most patients with Osteosarcoma?
Micrometastases
What is Palliative treatment for Osteosarcoma?
Pain Management
Bisphophonates
Radiation
What Chemotherapy is used for treatment of Osteosarcoma?
Doxorubicin
Carboplatin
Cisplatin
What is the first choice antibiotic treatment for open fractures?
Cefazolin
What is the most common complications associated with ESF?
Pin tract morbidity/ Drainage/ Infection
When placing Cerclage wires how should they be positioned in reference to the long axis of the bone?
Perpendicular
After achieving compression of a short oblique fraction using a lag screw. you also place a plate to protect the compression and apposition achieved lag screw. What plating mode is demonstrated in this example?
Neutralization Plating