Flashcards For the Quarter 1 Exam (skeletal system, nervous system, endocrine system, medical terminology, body planes, medical abbreviations, word roots)
functions of the skeletal system
- to provide shape and support to the body
- to protect vital organs
- to act as a set of levers
- together with muscles help a person move
- to produce blood cells
- to store calcium
long bones
longer than they are wide; form the extremities (arms and legs)
short bones
have similar length and width to long bones; can be found in the wrists and ankles; have an outer layer of compact bone and an inner layer of bone with a latticework structure
flat bones
have a broad shape; can be found in the skull, shoulder blades, and pelvis; cover organs to protect them or to provide a surface for large areas of muscle
irregular bones
specialized; do not fit the other types; ex.: bones of the ear, face and vertebrae
diaphysis (shaft)
longest part of a bone
epiphysis
each end of the shaft
articular cartilage
thin layer that covers the epiphysis to absorb shock where two bones meet to form a joint
the outer part of the bone
is made of compact bone tissue, does not bend easily, covered by the periosteum
periosteum
tough, fibrous tissue; contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and osteoblasts for bone growth, repair and nutrition
inside of the compact bone
spongy bone
medullary canal
cavity in the center of the shaft where marrow is stored; lined by the endosteum to keep the cavity intact
marrow
present in long bones; important for making blood cells
red marrow
found in epiphyses and certain flat bones; produces red blood cells, platelets, some white blood cells
children (-red marrow-)
have throughout their bodies; as they become adults, most is replaced with yellow marrow
yellow marrow
mostly made of flat cells; fills the medullary canal; serves as fat storage; contains blood vessels and some cells that form white blood cells
ligaments
important part of the skeletal system; tough, fibrous brands of connective tissue; serve to support the internal organs and hold bones together at the joints
joints
structures that separate two or more adjacent elements of the skeletal system (ex.: elbows and knees); classified by movement
categories (classifications/divisions) of joints
fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
fibrous joints
connected by dense connective tissues consistent mainly of collagen; immovable; skull bones are connected by fibrous joints
cartilaginous joints
connected entirely by cartilage: allows more movement between bones than a fibrous joint, but less than synovial joints (ex.: the intervertebral discs you see when you see images of the spine)
synovial joints
most common type of joints in the body; unlike the others, have a joint cavity that contains fluid, provides a greater range of motion and to cushion the bones from impact against each other
two sections (divisions) of the skeletal system
axial and appendicular
axial skeleton
forms the main trunk of the body; includes the skull, spinal column, ribs, breastbone
appendicular skeleton
forms the extremities (the shoulder girdle, arm bones, pelvic girdle, and leg bones)
make-up of the skull
consists of the cranium and facial bones
cranium
surrounds and protects the brain
cranial bones
join at points called sutures
fontanels (“soft spots”)
two openings in the cranium at birth; give space for the skull to enlarge as the brain grows; usually close by 18-24 months of age
8 cranial bones
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, ethmoid, sphenoid
facial bones
also part of the skull; guard and support the eyes, nose, mouth, and ears
14 facial bones
- 5 nasal
- 2 maxilla (upper jaw)
- 2 lacrimal (inner aspect of the eyes)
- 2 zygomatic (cheek)
- 2 palatine (roof of the mouth)
- 1 mandible (lower jaw)
mandible
(the lower jaw) the only movable bone in the bone, contains the sockets for the lower teeth
maxillary bones
contain the sockets for the upper teeth
spinal column (vertebral column)
consists of 26 bones called vertebrae; encloses and protects the spinal cord and supports the head and trunk
discs of cartilage tissue
separate the vertebrae to cushion the bones and allow movement
the spinal column includes these vertebrae:
- 7 cervical (neck)
- 12 thoracic (chest)
- 5 lumbar (lower back)
- 1 sacrum (back of pelvic girdle)
- 1 coccyx (tailbone)
thorax (chest cavity)
helps protect the heart and lungs
12 pairs of ribs “costae”:
- first 7 pairs - “true ribs”; attached to the sternum (breastbone)
- next 5 pairs - “false ribs”; the first 3 pairs of these ribs each attach to the cartilage of the rib above it, the last 2 pairs have no attachment on the front of the body and are called “floating ribs”
the sternum includes:
the manubrium, the gladiolus, the xiphoid process
manubrium
the upper region; attached by ligaments on both sides to the clavicles/collarbones
gladious
the body
xiphoid process
small piece of cartilage at the bottom
shoulder girdle/pectoral girdle
includes 4 bones: 2 clavicles/collarbones. 2 scapulas/shoulder bones
clavicles/collarbones
help brace the shoulders and prevent a person from having too much forward motion
scapulas/shoulder bones
provide a place for the arms to be attached; together with muscles, assist with arm movement
humerus
upper arm bone
ulna
lower arm bone whose upper end forms the elbow
radius
lower arm bone on the thumb side
the bones of each hand include the following:
- 8 carpals form the wrist
- 5 metacarpals form the palm of the hand
- 14 phalanges form the fingers
pelvic girdle
includes 2 os coxae/hip bones that attach to the sacrum in addition to connecting to each other at a joint called the symphysis pubis
os coxae
consists of these 3 fused sections: illium, ischium, pubis
pelvic girdle
supports the trunk of the body (in particular the lower soft abdominal organs); provides a place for the legs to be attached
the bones of each leg include the following:
- femur - the thigh bone in the upper leg; longest bone in the body
- patella - kneecap
- tibia - the shin in the lower leg
- fibula - located in the lower leg next to the tibia
the bones of each foot include the following:
- 7 tarsals - form the ankle
- calcaneus - large tarsal bone that forms the heel
- 5 metatarsals - form the instep of the foot
- 14 phalanges - form the toes
diarthrosis joint
movable
amphiarthrosis joint
partially movable
synarthrosis joint
immovable
joint
area where two or more bones connect
arthritis
refers to a group of disorder where one or more joints are inflamed; in many cases, cause unknown, some causes may include joint disease, infection, or trauma
rheumatoid arthritis
the body’s immune system attacks its own tissue at the joints
osteoarthritis/degenerative joint disease
usually occurs with aging
symptoms of arthritis
pain, swollen joints, stiffness during motion
treatments for arthritis
no cure; treatment geared toward relieving discomfort: rest, application of heat and cold, pain and anti-inflammatory medication, steroid injections; when severe damage has occured, surgery may be performed to replace joints
sprain
when a twisting action tears the ligaments at a joint; may be caused by a sudden or unusual motion
symptoms of sprain
pain, swelling, limited movement of the joint
treatments for sprain
involves rest, elevation, immobilization with a bandage or splint, anti-inflammatory medication, alternating application of heat and cold
dislocation
when a bone is displaced from a joint; typically caused by trauma, may also be inherited; often occurs in shoulders, fingers, knees, hips
treatments for dislocation
involves reduction, immobilization with a splint or cast, rest
reduction
the return of the bone to its proper position
fracture
crack or break in the bone caused by trauma
symptoms of fracture
include pain, swelling, bruising
treatments for fracture
involves resetting the bone and immobilization with a cast or traction
greenstick
the bone is bent and split; does not completely break
simple or closed
the bone completely breaks but does not pierce through the skin
compound or open
the bone breaks and pierces through the skin, can lead to infection
comminuted
the bone splinters into more than two pieces, which can become embedded in the surrounding tissue
muscular system
contains over 600 muscles
muscle
~40% of body weight
functions of the muscular system
- helps with body movement
- supports body posture
- produces heat and energy
- protects internal organs
- helps move blood, food, and waste products through the body
- opens and closes body openings
muscles
usually act in groups to create movement
each muscle
is a distinct part
all muscles
have/share four common traits
excitability or irritability
(one of four shared muscle traits) the ability to respond to a stimulus (such as a nerve or hormone); muscles can be stimulated electrically, mechanically, or chemically
contractibility
(one of four shared muscle traits) the ability to shorten and produce movement when stimulated
extensibility
(one of four shared muscle traits) the ability to be stretched and lengthened
elasticity
the ability to return to its original shape after contracting or stretching
muscle tone
refers to the ability of muscles to be slightly contracted at all times (even when not in use); allows a person to be in a state of readiness to act
types of muscle tissue
cardiac, visceral, skeletal
cardiac muscle
forms the walls of the heart; when contracts, causes the heart to beat to circulate blood
visceral/smooth muscle
found in hollow organs, in the walls of blood vessels, the eyes; contracts to produce movement in these organs
skeletal muscle
attached to the bones; helps produce body movement
microscopic anatomical make-up of skeletal muscle (microscopic anatomy)
have alternating light and dark bands; light band has a darker area called “Z disc”, dark band has a lighter area called H zone/bare zone; bands give the muscle cell its striped appearance
microscopic anatomical make-up of visceral muscle (microscopic anatomy)
shows no cross stripes under microscopic magnification; consists of narrow, spindle-shaped cells with a single, centrally located nucleus; smooth muscle tissue (unlike striated muscle) contracts slowly and automatically, makes up much of the musculature of internal organs and digestive system
microscopic anatomical make-up of cardiac muscle (microscopic anatomy)
(like skeletal muscle cells) cardiac muscle cells are striated with narrow dark and light bands; however these are narrower and and much shorter than skeletal muscle cells; often branched and contain one or more nuclei; branched ends fit together tightly (not seen in skeletal muscle)
tendons
brands of fibrous tissue that attach muscles to bones
origin
the end of the muscle that is connected to the bone that is immovable
insertion
the end connected to the bone that moves when the muscle contracts
fascia
a sheet of tough fibrous tissue that wraps around an individual muscle
flexion
bending a body part, decreases the angle of the joint
extension
straightening a body part, increases the angle of the joint
abduction
moving a body part away from the midline
adduction
moving a body part toward the midline
rotation
turning a body part around on its own axis to produce a circular or semi-circular rotation
circumduction
the movement of a body region in a circular manner, in which one end of the body region being moved stays relatively stationary while the other end moves in a circle
supination and pronation
movements of the forearm
supination
when the upper limb is held next to the body with the palm facing forward
pronation
the motion that moves the forearm from the supination position to the palm facing backward position
dorisflexion and plantar flexion
movements at the ankle joint (is a hinge joint)
dorisflexion
lifting the foot so that the top of the foot moves toward the anterior leg
plantar flexion
lifting the heel of the foot from the ground or pointing the toes downward
inversion
the turning of the foot to angle the bottom of the foot toward the midline
eversion
turns the bottom of the foot away from the midline (the foot has a greater range of inversion than eversion motion)
protraction
of the scapula occurs when the shoulder is moved forward
retraction
opposite to protraction; the scapula is pulled posteriorly and medially, toward the vertebral column
loss of muscle tone
can result from serious illness (ex.: paralysis)
lack of muscle tone
can result in atrophy or contracture
atrophy
a reduction in size and strength of the muscle
contracture
a severe tightening of muscle resulting in permanent bending of a joint
muscle strain
torn or stretched muscles or tendons
causes of muscle strain
muscles being used too suddenly or for too long
symptoms of muscle strain
include pain and swelling from bleeding inside the muscle
treatments for muscle strain
involve rest, elevation, muscle relaxants or pain medication, alternating hot and cold applications
fibromyalgia
refers to a group of muscle disorders with chronic pain in specific muscle sites
causes of fibromyalgia
exact cause unknown, affected by stress, the weather, poor physical fitness
symptoms of fibromyalgia
include fatigue, headache, feelings of numbness and tingling; no inflammation
fibromyalgia treatment
involves rest, reducing stress, exercise, massage, medication to relax muscles and relieve pain
muscular dystrophy
refers to a group of inherited diseases in which the muscles gradually atrophy (waste away)
symptoms of muscular dystrophy
painless, progressive muscle weakness, mild disability
symptoms of severe forms of muscular dystrophy
total disability and eventually death
treatment to slow the progress of muscular dystrophy
(no cure in known) medication, physical therapy, corrective surgery
nervous system
the communication network for the body
the nervous system (relates to the other systems)
the most highly organized system
the main function of the nervous system
to coordinate all of the body’s activities
when changes occur inside or outside the body
the nervous system allows it to recognize them and respond as needed
the basic element of the nervous system
the neuron
neuron/nerve cell
job is to transmit a message from one cell to the next
in order for a neuron to perform its job
contains special fibers that extend from the cytoplasm of the cell body
dendrites
conduct impulses toward the cell
a nerve cell
may have several dendrites
axons
conduct impulses away from the cell
each nerve cell
has only one axon
many axons
covered by a fatty tissue called the myelin sheath
myelin sheath
protects the axons and speeds up the impulse as it travels
impulse
refers to a force that produces sudden activity in nerve cells and is transmitted in a wave along nerve fibers
the axon of one neuron
lies close to many dendrites of other neurons
synapse
the space between a dendrite and an axon
neurotransmitters
special chemicals that help impulses “jump” the synapse to pass the message from cell to cell
neurons
form bundles called nerves
the impulses
can follow many different routes throughout the body
types of neurons
afferent, efferent, associative
afferent neurons/sensory neurons
carry messages from all parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord
efferent neurons/motor neurons
carry messages from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
associative neurons/interneurons
carry messages from afferent neurons to efferent neurons
the two main divisions of the nervous system
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
central nervous system
consists of the brain, spinal cord, optic (eye) nerves
peripheral nervous system
consists of nerves that reach all parts of the body
autonomic nervous system
the special division of the peripheral nervous system which controls the involuntary activities of the vital organs
spinal cord
controls many reflex actions; acts as a pathway for messages to and from the brain and the nerves that go to the muscles and glands
involuntary
refers to actions that are not controlled by a person’s conscious thought/will
brain
interprets, organizes, and stores information
job of the brain
to control and direct body functions
the main sections of the brain
the cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum, brain stem
cerebrum
the largest and highest section of the brain; separated into four lobes; concerned with reasoning, the senses, speech, voluntary body movement
the four lobes of the cerebrum
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
diencephalon
includes two parts: the thalamus and the hypothalamus
thalamus
directs sensory impulses to the cerebrum
hypothalamus
controls the autonomic nervous system, body temperature, appetite, water balance, sleep, blood vessel constriction and dilation
the hypothalamus is a role-player in
emotions (ex.: anger, fear, pleasure, pain, affection)
cerebellum
responsible for coordination of muscle movements, balance and posture, muscle tone
brain stem
includes three parts
parts of the brain stem
the midbrain, the pons, the medulla oblongata
midbrain
conducts impulses between the brain parts and for certain eye and auditory reflexes
pons
directs messages to other parts of the brain and for chewing, saliva production; helps with respiration
medulla oblongata
connects with the spinal cord; regulates heartbeat, respiration, swallowing, blood pressure
spinal cord location
starts at the base of the brain stem and extends to the area around the first lumbar vertebrae in the lower back
encasement of the spinal cord
the vertebral column
spinal column/vertebral column
consists of 26 bones called vertebrae
spinal cord
controls many reflex actions; acts as a pathway for messages to and from the brain and the nerves that go to the muscles and glands
optic nerve location
in the back of the eye
optic nerve
responsible for transferring visual information from the retina to the vision centers of the brain via electrical impulses
the second of several pairs of cranial nerves
the optic nerve
the make-up of the optic nerve
made up of nerve cells; consists of over one million nerve fibers
the protector of the brain
the skull
the protectors of the spinal cord
the surrounding vertebrae
meninges
three layers of tough membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord
the three meninges layers
- the dura mater - the outer layer
- arachnoid membrane - the middle layer
- pia mater - the innermost layer
cerebrospinal fluid
watery liquid that fills the brain’s four ventricles (hollow spaces); acts as a shock absorber
functions of the cerebrospinal fluid
- carries nutrients to some parts of the central nervous system
- helps remove metabolic products and wastes
movement of cerebrospinal fluid
flows throughout the brain and around the spinal cord for further protection
make-up of the peripheral nervous system
includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their branches and 31 pairs of spinal nerves and their branches
some of the cranial nerves
process input from special senses, such as sight, hearing, taste, smell
other cranial nerves
receive general sensations (ex.: touch, pressure, pain, temperature); send out impulses to control muscles
spinal nerves
carry messages to and from the spinal cord
each spinal nerve
goes directly to a certain part of the body or forms a network with other spinal nerves to reach a larger segment of the body
two divisions of the autonomic nervous system
the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems
usually work together to maintain a balanced state for the body
sympathetic system
in times of emergency, prepares the body for action with the “fight or flight” response
functions of the sympathetic system
- increases heart rate, respiration, blood pressure
2. slows the rate of digestion
parasympathetic system
after the stress is over (after the emergency), reverses the actions of the sympathetic system to counteract the effects and return the body to normal working conditions
autism/autism spectrum disorder
refers to a broad range of conditions characterized by challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech, nonverbal communication; a brain disorder
cause of autism
unknown
the nature of autism
appears to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors
the most common cause of dementia
Alzheimer’s disease
dementia
a general term for memory loss serious enough to interfere with daily life
Alzheimer’s disease
occurs when nerve cells in the brain die; a progressive neurodegenerative disease
results of Alzheimer’s disease
often results in impaired memory, thinking, behavior
in advanced stages of Alzheimer’s disease
complications from severe loss of brain function and can result in death
treatment for Alzheimer’s disease
no treatment that cures the disease or alters the disease’s process in the brain
myasthenia gravis
disease where the proper nerve pulses are not sent to the muscles
the result of myasthenia gravis
progressive muscle weakness and paralysis occur
cause of myasthenia gravis
exact cause unknown; thought that it may be related to an autoimmune process
cure for myasthenia gravis
none
treatment for myasthenia gravis
involves medication and lifestyle changes to cope with the disease
definitions/synonyms of cerebrovascular accident
- CVA
- stroke
- “brain attack”
cerebrovascular accident
occurs when there is a loss of blood flow, and in turn oxygen, to the brain
possible causes of cerebrovascular accident
a blood vessel bursting or being blocked by a blood clot
symptoms of cerebrovascular accident
vary depending on the area and the amount of brain tissue damaged
common symptoms of cerebrovascular accident
include weakness or paralysis on one side of the body, difficulty swallowing, visual or speech impairment, mental confusion, loss of consciousness
stroke
a leading cause of death in the United States
controlling risk factors of stroke
smoking, heart disease, diabetes (helps to prevent them)
treatment within the first three hours of a stroke
(ex.: using drugs to break up a clot and restore blood flow) can help to prevent brain damage
treatment for any damage
(from a stroke) involves therapy to help people recover from or adapt to the losses of mental or physical function
multiple sclerosis (MS)
disease of the central nervous system
the result of multiple sclerosis
progressive loss of muscle control
the myelin sheath in multiple sclerosis
slowly destroyed
the exact cause of multiple sclerosis
unknown; thought that it may be related to a virus or an autoimmune process
early symptoms of multiple sclerosis
include double vision, tingling and numbness, weakness, fatigue
as multiple sclerosis worsens
symptoms include tremors, speech impairment, paralysis
cure for multiple sclerosis
none
treatment for multiple sclerosis
involves medication and physical therapy to help control the symptoms and maintain functional ability as long as possible
function of the endocrine system
to secrete hormones to regulate body activities
hormones
often referred to as “chemical messengers”; carried throughout the body by bloodstream; each coordinates and directs specific activities of the body, resulting in many different hormones performing many functions
exocrine glands
release chemical substances through ducts to outside the body or another surface within the body
pituitary gland
“master gland”; hormones it produces regulate other gland
luteinizing hormone
stimulates ovulation and the formation of the corpus luteum to secrete progesterone in females
follicle-stimulating hormone
stimulates the growth of the ovarian follicle and estrogen production in females; stimulates sperm production in males
prolaction hormone
develops breast tissue and produces milk in females after childbirth
thyroid-stimulating hormone
stimulates the growth and secretion of the thyroid gland
interstitial cell-stimulating hormone
stimulates the secretion of testosterone in males
growth hormone
responsible for growth and devleopment
adrenocorticotropic hormone
stimulates the growth and secretion of the adrenal cortex
the hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
antidiuretic hormone
maintains water balance by increasing the absorption of water by the kidneys (vasopressin)
oxytocin
stimulates contractions of the uterus in females during childbirth; stimulates milk flow during breastfeeding
thyroid gland
produces thyroxine, triiodothyronine, calcitonin
thyroxine and triiodothyronine
regulate body metabolism
calcitonin
reduces the amount of calcium in the blood
location of the thyroid gland
the upper part of the neck
the two lobes of the thyroid gland
connected by a small piece of tissue called the isthmus
the importance of iodine
requirement of the thyroid gland to function properly
the obtainence of iodine
certain foods and iodized salt
location of the parathyroid glands
attached to the back side of the thyroid gland
