final study guide (Ch.5-8)

Question 1

What are the different elements present in each macromolecule?

Answer 1

carb. COH, lipids COH, proteins COHN, nucleic acids COHNP

Question 2

how do you tell carbohydrates apart from lipids?

Answer 2

carbohydrates have a more even distribution of C, H, and O, while lipids tend to have long chains of C, and H with very few O.

Question 3

what is the function of carbohydrates?

Answer 3

energy and structure as well as long term storage.

Question 4

what are monosaccharides classified by?

Answer 4

location of carbonyl group and # of carbons

Question 5

what covalent bond links monomers of carbohydrates?

Answer 5

glycosidic linkages

Question 6

What is starch and glycogen?

Answer 6

starch is the storage sugars of plants and glycogen is the storage sugars of animals.

Question 7

why can’t humans digest cellulose?

Answer 7

it is much heavier than water and has strong hydrogen bonds. also our enzymes can’t hydrolyze beta linkages.

Question 8

what is glycerol?

Answer 8

3-carbon alcohol w/ hydroxyl group (OH) attached to each carbon.

Question 9

what is the bond that holds glycerol and fatty acids together?

Answer 9

ester linkage (through dehydration reaction)

Question 10

what makes up amino acids?

Answer 10

a central carbon (alpha) attached to amino group (NH2), carboxyl group (C=0, OH), R group, and a H.

Question 11

what are the bonds that connect amino acids?

Answer 11

peptide bonds

Question 12

What is the primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure of proteins?

Answer 12

primary is unique sequence of amino acids, secondary is the hydrogen bonds that cause coils and folds, tertiary is determined by r group, and quaternary is when 2 polypeptide chains form a macromolecule.

Question 13

what are nucleotides made up of?

Answer 13

phosphate group, sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

Question 14

what replaces thymine in RNA?

Answer 14

uracil

Question 15

where does protein synthesis occur?

Answer 15

in ribosomes

Question 16

what is a nucleoside?

Answer 16

nitrogenous base and sugar

Question 17

what are the 2 nitrogenous bases and what do they do?

Answer 17

pyrimidines( single 6-membered ring) and purines (1 six-membered ring attached to a 5-membered ring)

Question 18

what is the bond that holds nucleotides together?

Answer 18

phosphodiester bonds

Question 19

What do plant cells have that animal cells do not have?

Answer 19

Plant cells have a large vacuole in the middle to store water and also contain chloroplasts as well as a cell wall and a plasmodesmata.

Question 20

what’s the difference between bound and free ribosomes?

Answer 20

bound ribosomes are attached to the ER or nuclear envelope whereas free ribosomes are in the cytosol

Question 21

What is part of the endomembrane system?

Answer 21

Nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and the plasma membrane.

Question 22

what does the smooth ER do?

Answer 22

it synthesizes lipids, metabolizes carbs, stores calcium, and detoxifies poison

Question 23

What is the nucleolus?

Answer 23

it’s in the center of the nucleus and produces ribosomes and rRNA

Question 24

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?

Answer 24

modifies the products of the ER, manufactures certain macromolecules, and sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles.

Question 25

What does the Golgi apparatus consist of?

Answer 25

flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

Question 26

What is the structure/function of lysosomes?

Answer 26

made up of hydrolytic enzymes that hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. They also recycle organelles through a process called autophagy.

Question 27

What are peroxisomes?

Answer 27

metabolic compartments that contain the enzyme catalase to convert hydrogen peroxide into water.

Question 28

explain the structure of chloroplasts

Answer 28

granum are stacks of thylakoids and within the thylakoid membranes are photosystems in which photosynthesis takes place. The stroma is the liquid that surrounds that granum.

Question 29

What are the 3 molecular structures inside of the cytoskeleton and describe their roles?

Answer 29

microtubules are the thickest and maintain cell shape and motility. microfilaments are the thinnest and are used in muscle contraction and cell division. intermediate filaments are in the middle and anchor the nucleus.

Question 30

What is dynein and how does it work?

Answer 30

they are motor proteins in which their arms alternately grab, move, and release the outer microtubules.

Question 31

what are the three layers of a plant's cell walls?

Answer 31

the primary cell wall is thin and flexible. The middle lamella is a thin layer in between the primary walls of adjacent cells. Secondary cell walls are in some plants and are in between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall.

Question 32

what are plasmodesmata?

Answer 32

channels in between adjacent plant cells.

Question 33

what turns plasma membranes solid?

Answer 33

low temperatures and more saturated fatty acids.

Question 34

how do membranes stay fluid during cold temperatures?

Answer 34

by adding cholesterol. (cholesterol restrains movement in hot temps and encourages movement in cold temps)

Question 35

What's the difference between peripheral and integral proteins?

Answer 35

peripheral proteins are not embedded in the membrane and integral proteins penetrate the membrane

Question 36

What's a glycoprotein?

Answer 36

when a carbohydrate binds to a lipid on the plasma membrane.

Question 37

What does not cross the membrane easily and what helps them cross?

Answer 37

polar molecules, large molecules and channel proteins help them cross

Question 38

What helps the passage of water across a membrane and what is the movement of water across a membrane called?

Answer 38

aquaporins (protein complex) and osmosis (process)

Question 39

solute vs solvent?

Answer 39

solute is the substance that gets dissolved and a solvent is the substance that dissolves another substance.

Question 40

hypotonic vs hypertonic solution?

Answer 40

hypotonic is when there is more solution inside the cell and the outside has less solution so the water moves into the cell. hypertonic is when there is more solution on the outside of cell, so water moves out of the cell.

Question 41

What is an electrogenic pump?

Answer 41

a transport protein that generates a voltage across a membrane. (a common type is a H+ pump)

Question 42

What is a catabolic and an anabolic reaction?

Answer 42

catabolic releases energy by breaking things down and anabolic absorbs energy by building molecules

Question 43

What does the first law of thermodynamics state?

Answer 43

the energy of the universe is constant and is able to be transformed or transferred, but not created or destroyed.

Question 44

What does the second law of thermodynamics state?

Answer 44

during every energy transfer, some energy is lost and decreases the entropy of the universe.

Question 45

What is entropy (∆S) and how does an increase in temp, enthalpy, and free energy affect it?

Answer 45

entropy is disorder. Increased temp causes increased entropy. Increased enthalpy causes decreased entropy. Increased free energy causes entropy to decrease.

Question 46

What is enthalpy?

Answer 46

The amount of energy released or absorbed in a chemical reaction. So if ∆H is positive, it absorbs energy and if its negative it releases energy.

Question 47

How does ∆G (free energy) affect spontaneity? what is free energy?

Answer 47

if ∆G is positive, it is nonspontaneous. If ∆G is negative, it is spontaneous. the measure of a system's instability and tendency to change to a more stable state.

Question 48

Where does the release of energy come from in ATP?

Answer 48

the chemical change to a state of lower free energy

Question 49

What is a hydrolysis and dehydration reaction?

Answer 49

hydrolysis breaks molecules down by adding water. Dehydration combines molecules by releasing a water molecule.

Question 50

What are cofactors and coenzymes?

Answer 50

cofactors are nonprotein enzyme helpers and coenzymes are organic cofactors.

Question 51

What is allosteric regulation?

Answer 51

The process in which a regulatory molecule binds to another part of an enzyme which can either make it more or less functional