Final IDs Flashcards
1
Q
1924-1945 Periodization
A
- emergence of sizeable American-born second generation in 1920s (especially those coming of age in 20s, 30s, 40s)
- delay in emergence of second generation because of immigration restrictions on Asian women, anti-miscegenation laws, exclusion acts
- few Filipino women, steady decline in Koreans and Indians
- not until 1920s is there a sizeable second generation that starts to outnumber first generation
2
Q
Paper Sons and Daughters
A
- 1906 SF earthquake burned down City Hall and the birth records that it held
- no way of establishing birthplaces
- Chinese took advantage of 14th Amendment birthright citizenship to forge documents and claim they were born in US
- Chinese men claimed citizenship, then went back to China and had kids or adopted them (paper sons and daughters) and that kid would automatically be US citizen
- vast majority had no blood connections to the men
- in China, selling these certificates earned a lot of money
- paper sons and daughters were interrogated at Angel Island by immigration officials to try to confirm they were really related
- had to study family history documents/booklets and then get tested on those; separated kids if there were multiple and asked them questions to see if they would contradict each other
- this is how the second generation of Chinese Americans came (71,000 btwn 1920-1940)
- Chinese didn’t see this as wrong bcs immigration exclusion acts were already wrong
3
Q
Angel Island Interrogations
A
- interrogated Chinese paper sons and daughters and Japanese picture brides, also checked for diseases
- had to provide evidence that they were really related/married
- long, lots of questions
- Gee Theo Quee
- paper sons and daughters memorized entire booklets of family histories to be admitted to US
4
Q
Nisei
A
- emerged bcs of admission of picture brides
- HI and mainland
- outnumbered issei 2 to 1 by 1941
- 2/3 of incarcerated during WWII were nisei (American citizens)
- smaller second generation of Koreans in HI
5
Q
Mexican-Punjabi Marriages and Families
A
- 90% of Punjabi men married Mexican women, esp in Imperial Valley near San Diego
- ambiguous racial status of Mexican women
- legally white (until 1930s) by Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, when US granted citizenship to Mexican citizens who stayed in US
- socially non-white (subject to similar Jim Crow segregation)
- Punjabi-Mexican marriages not against anti-miscegenation laws (up to discretion of clerk)
- Mexican women who worked for Punjabi fathers and then married them
- biracial children and bicultural households (often spoke Spanish, raised Catholic bcs moms more involved in upbringing)
- clashes when Punjabi fathers wanted daughters to marry Punjabi men, and Mexican mothers wouldn’t agree bcs of age gap
6
Q
Second-Generation Dilemma
A
- racial institutional barriers still victimized second generation, even though they were American citizens, fluent in English, Americans first, etc.
- restricted lives as American citizens just like first generation parents
- caught between ideals and hopes of American life, but stopped by social segregation and racial discrimination, especially in employment opportunities
- hard to move from ethnic economies to mainstream economies
- even ethnic economies didn’t have a lot of opportunities (Japanese Americans couldn’t get into Chinese ethnic econs or American econ)
- remained relegated to ethnic enclaves working with first gen, who were already disillusioned
- question of where 2nd generation belonged
- followed trends to exercise citizenship
- youth-oriented, second generation subcultures (ethnic beauty pageants, etc.)
7
Q
“New Chinese-American Woman”
A
- Flora Belle Jan
- builds off new woman idea (self-fulfillment, own path, independence)
- beauty contests for Asian Americans
- break from traditional Asian culture, but still a cultural event
- reflected bicultural identities and reconciling of American and Asian ethnic identities
- combining contradictions of quiet Asian woman vs. lively American girl
- creating 2nd generation IDs
- youth-oriented, second gen subcultures that contribute to rise of consumer cultures
8
Q
“Double Victory” Campaign
A
- goal of expanding democratic ideals at home and abroad during and after World War II (US couldn’t be hypocrites)
- profound impact on Asians, women, and other marginalized communities in US
- racial liberalism promotes incorporation of racial minorities into US nation state
- not about revolution, but reform
- including minorities into mainstream society, but not changing American melting pot
- more continuation of assimilation than sharp departure from US racial policies
9
Q
Executive Order 8802 (1941)
A
- US wanted to use legislation to engineer social reform
- prohibited racial discrimination in defense industry employment
- new employment opportunities for Asian Americans, women, African Americans
- opportunity to move out of ethnic enclaves and enter professional employment
- gradually altered occupational profile of Asian Americans and opened up skilled trades and technical professions
- more mobility (economic and spatial) for people, including Asian American women who could leave their homes
10
Q
United Korean Committee (UKC)
A
- Koreans actively involved in anti-Japanese colonial movement, but US ignored them
- once Japan attacked US, Koreans pressed for their independence
- 1941: Koreans came together in common war effort and formed UKC to support Allies and destroy Axis powers
11
Q
“Little Brown Brother”
A
- Filipinos fought in 1st and 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiments, doing recon for MacArthur
- served as equals with other American men
- Filipinos in the army could go from US nationals to US citizens
- as they fought alongside white people, attitudes changed from “little brown monkey” (sexually depraved, taxi dance hall money wasters) to “little brown brothers” (hardworking Christian allies)
12
Q
Repeal of Chinese Exclusion Act (1943)
A
- lasted from 1882-1943
- Chinese American sociologist campaigned for repeal in 1942 using Double Victory language (hypocritical to defend democracy abroad while denying it to people at home)
- repealed to counter Japanese propaganda denouncing US racial discrimination
- Chinese also seen as allies in fight against Japan
- New Act allowed 105 Chinese Americans to enter US per year
- still quota system
- included Chinese from any part of the world as Chinese
- rigid restrictions on application process, so it was more for symbolic international goodwill rather than fundamental restructuring of immigration laws
13
Q
“Fifth Column” Threat
A
- rumors that Japanese in HI helped Japan bomb Pearl Harbor
- 5th Column = group w/in country helping the enemy
- feared that Japanese in America would collaborate with Japan for second attack
- mass anti-Japanese hysteria
- FBI unannounced searches for evidence espionage
- Japanese families destroyed photos and records out of fears of accusations
- media (San Diego Union) fed into fears that kids of Japanese grow up to be Japanese, not Americans
- economic and political interests to get Japanese-owned farms (Western Growers Protective Association)
- politicians (Earl Warren) suspected invisible deadline for espionage
- military (John L. DeWitt)
- Dr. Seuss cartoon
14
Q
Munson Report (1941)
A
- Curtis Munson hired by FDR to ascertain loyalties of Japanese Americans months before Pearl Harbor
- cleared Japanese Americans of any and all subversive activities
- Japanese no more likely to be disloyal than any other group
- other US military and government intelligence reports supported Munson Report (even J Edgar Hoover said the Japanese who were threats had already been rounded up in Department of Justice camps)
- government officials suppressed this report
- never any evidence of sabotage, but no one voiced public opposition to incarceration
- no real military necessity to incarcerate them
15
Q
Executive Order 9066 (Feb 1942)
A
- FDR ordered mass removal from designated military zones to one out of 12 different camps on the West Coast
- Japanese unnamed, but targeted
- “any and all persons” may be removed
- implementation under Lt John L. DeWitt
- FDR accepted recommendation of mass removal of Japanese Americans
16
Q
Hawaii Martial Law
A
- Japanese Americans not forcibly removed, but restricted
- they couldn’t remove Japanese from HI because Japanese were 35% of population in HI –> removal would cripple wartime industries and economy (General Delos Emmons)
- 1500 Japanese rounded up, but others were viewed with suspicion and placed under martial law (civilian government suspended, military government supreme)
- strict curfews
- stages of martial law
17
Q
Military Necessity
A
- Japanese incarceration framed as military necessity for safety of US
- still debate among top military officials about justification of mass incarceration
- way to justify incarcerating US citizens
- only Japanese were rounded up, not German and Italian Americans
- no historian has ever accepted the military necessity justification
- clear racial underpinnings; linked to long chain of anti-Asian sentiment
- military necessity was a myth
18
Q
War Relocation Authority (WRA)
A
- responsible for managing camps
- recognized nisei as representatives of all Japanese Americans in camps, exacerbating tensions within Japanese families
- WRA also in charge of sending “No-No Boys” to camp of disloyal citizens at Tule Lake and approving leave clearance applications
- WRA used culture as measure of political loyalty, but realized this placed Japanese Americans in difficult position
19
Q
Designated Military Areas 1 and 2
A
- under Civilian Exclusion Order #34 (DeWitt), which orded all people of Japanese ancestry to be forcibly removed their homes from these designated military areas
- Military Area 1 (West Coast) in March 1942: couldn’t leave their homes
- Japanese moved out from Military Area 1
- DeWitt made Military Area 2 (rest of West Coast not covered by Military Area 1)
- in Chicago and NY, you were safe from military removal
- 90% of Japanese Americans lived in these areas, but if you lived outside of them, you weren’t subject to Executive Order 9066
20
Q
Assembly Centers
A
- where Japanese were sent while camps being built
- located on horse race tracks, fairgrounds
- families stayed in horse stalls and waited for camps to be built
- families moved out in May 1942 to camps across the country
- assembly camps in remote areas with barbed wire and guard towers
- 120,000 Japanese Americans stayed in assembly centers for 3 yrs
- whole family had to move and report to assembly camps
- people went with their siblings and parents and grandparents to avoid separation
21
Q
Hirabayashi v. US (1943)
A
- Gordon Hirabayashi was Seattle student and US citizen who went to FBI and turned himself in for refusing to comply with curfew and the forced removal orders
- believed he shouldn’t be denied rights of citizenship
- spent 5 mo in prison
- case went to Supreme Court because it challenged constitutionality of forced removal laws
- conviction held up by Supreme Court and supported curfews and removal orders
- “A Jap’s a Jap” logic (guilty by reason of race
- ruled that government could suspend rights of citizens during wartime, even tho at that point, US mainland wasn’t under martial law
- military necessity placed over due process of law
- constitutionality has never been overturned of these rulings, so still possible for government to target these groups (like it almost did during 9/11)
- affirmed legality of mass incarceration
22
Q
Korematsu vs. US (1944)
A
- Fred Korematsu wasn’t conscientious objector
- wanted to stay in Portland w/ Portuguese fiance, so went on the run and created fake IDs, but arrested by FBI
- then became objector; arrested for failing to report to assembly center
- case went to Supreme Court because it challenged constitutionality of forced removal laws
- split decision to uphold conviction (6 to 3)
- conviction held up by Supreme Court and supported curfews and removal orders
- “A Jap’s a Jap” logic (guilty by reason of race
- ruled that government could suspend rights of citizens during wartime, even tho at that point, US mainland wasn’t under martial law
- military necessity placed over due process of law
- constitutionality has never been overturned of these rulings, so still possible for government to target these groups (like it almost did during 9/11)
- seething dissent of Justice Frank Murphy, who criticized this legalization of racism
- affirmed legality of mass incarceration
23
Q
Hirabayashi, Yasui, Korematsu
A
- Hirabayashi and Korematsu cases reopened in 1982 and overturned when sansei pushed for redress and reparations
- Munson Report came out showing that military necessity was a myth
- convictions of H and K overturned on grounds of factual error (evidence that would’ve exonerated them was withheld
- Yatsui case not overturned
- Court only overturned convictions, never the constitutionality of incarceration
24
Q
Japanese American Citizens League (JACL)
A
- nisei leaders were members of JACL and recognized by WRA as representatives of all Japanese Americans in camps
- created in 1929, still present
- called for Japanese Americans to cooperate with removal orders to show loyalty to US
- prioritized assimilation and 110% Americanism
- reflected nisei longing to be Americans and unfailing belief in ability to be included in American society
- exacerbated tensions w/ issei and kibei, who accused JACL of being dogs (enu) and traitors to Japanese and selling themselves to Americans
- JACL accused issei and kibei that it was bcs of people like them that Japanese were in camps in the first place
- issei and kibei would beat up JACL members
25
Q
“A Jap’s a Jap”
A
- doesn’t matter what their citizenship status, they’re a dangerous element
- no way to determine their loyalty, even if citizens of US
- logic of removal of 95% of Japanese Americans
- racial underpinnings below myth of military necessity
- German and Italian Americans could be told apart from good and bad, but there’s no such thing as a good Jap (can’t form sound opinion about Japanese bcs they’re not Caucasian)
- same logic used to uphold convictions of Hirabayashi, Yatsui, and Korematsu
26
Q
Kibei
A
- nisei American-born Japanese who returned to Japan to be educated there, then came back to US
- associated more with Japanese culture
- on the side of the issei in the camps and generational conflicts
- viewed nisei as sell-outs
27
Q
Leave Clearance Applications (1942 and Feb 1943) – Loyalty Review Program
A
- increased/hardened divisions and turmoil in camps
- government allowed nisei to enlist in US army or leave camps on work furloughs in Midwest as farming labor in rural areas
- instituted LRP to filter out loyal and disloyal
- controversy around application, esp Questions #27-28
- every American male citizen of Japanese ancestry btwn ages 17-37 had to fill out the form, and so did issei over 17
- WRA used culture to measure political loyalty
- didn’t allow dual loyalty for Japanese
28
Q
Questions #27 and #28
A
- # 27: “Are you willing to serve in armed forces of US on combat duty, wherever ordered?”
- insulted Japanese Americans; how dare you ask us to serve the military of the country that imprisoned us?
- # 28: “Will you swear unqualified allegiance to US and faithfully defend US from any or all attack by foreign or domestic forces, and forswear any form of allegiance or obedience to Jap Emperor or any other foreign gov’t, power, or organization?”
- bold of US to assume that they had allegiance to Japanese government to begin with
- they’re Americans and only have loyalty to US government, which has imprisoned them
- issei also had to sign these, so how dare you make the issei forswear Japan and leave them stateless
- who stays behind in camps to take care of kids and elderly?
- WTA didn’t anticipate refusals, controversy, and anger (expected “yes”)
- 87% answered yes, 13% no (10,000)
- nisei reconsidering unfiltered loyalty to US
