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ped 216 > Final Exam terms > Flashcards

Final Exam terms Flashcards

1
Q

Catabolism

A

the breakdown of large biomolecules, energy is released from an high energy body

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2
Q

anabolism

A

The creation of large biomolecules (transfer of energy into covalent bonds of macromolecules)

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3
Q

acetyl CoA

A

Is a molecule that participates in many biomechanics reactions in protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism

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4
Q

Pyruvate

A

it is the output of metabolism of glucose known as glycolysis

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5
Q

lactate

A

lactate can be used for itself for energy more directly, it can also be recycled into glucose through glucogenesis

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6
Q

Citric acid cycle

A
  • 2 carbon acyl units join 4 carbon oxaloacetate to make 6 carbon citrate
  • energy is lost as heat
  • full oxidation of glucose molecules yields 30-32
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7
Q

electron transport chain

A
  • takes high energy electrons from NADH and FADH 2
  • energy is used to create ATP by creating an H+ gradient
  • oxygen is the final acceptor of electron and H to make H20
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8
Q

lipophobic hormone

A

water soluble hormones

  • usually bind to surface receptors
  • “fat hating”
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9
Q

lipophilic hormone

A
  • hydrophobic hormones

- not soluble in water, soluble in fat

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10
Q

hormone signal transduction

A
  • signal transduction is a process by which a peptide hormone transfers specific information from the outside of the target cell to elicit a cellular response
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11
Q

peptide hormone

A
  • are water soluble, lipophobic
  • composed of linked amino acids
  • most hormones fall into this category
  • eg. insulin, glucagon, vasopressin
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12
Q

steroid hormone

A
  • derived from cholesterol
  • lipophilic, hydrophobic
  • eg. cortisol, aldosterone
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13
Q

amine hormone

A
  • modification of a single amino acid

- eg. catecholamines

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14
Q

simple endocrine reflex

A

the cell senses stimulus, and responds by releasing hormones
- cell is both the sensory and integrating centre

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15
Q

catecholamine

A
  • act like peptide hormones, this includes norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine, which are all neurohormones
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16
Q

pituitary gland

A

master gland in the body, controls endocrine function in all other glands

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17
Q

tropic hormone

A

control the secretion of other hormones

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18
Q

growth hormone

A
  • most abundant hormone produced by the anterior pituitary
  • acts on body tissues instead of influencing glands
  • secretion decreases with age
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19
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone

A
  • stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone and growth of the thyroid gland
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20
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone

A
  • the hypothalamus release corticotropin releasing hormone which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH, which stimulates cortisol release
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21
Q

hyper secretion

A
  • leads to hormone excess
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22
Q

hypo secretion

A
  • too little hormone is produced
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23
Q

down regulation

A
  • high hormone secretion leads to down regulation of response (receptors)
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24
Q

synergism

A

the combined effect of two hormones is greater than the sum of the individual hormone effects

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25
Q

lipase

A

carry out enzymatic fat digestions

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26
Q

triglyceride

A

derived from glycerol and 3 fatty acids

- main constituents of body fat in humans

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27
Q

monoglyceride

A

composed of a molecule of glycerol linked to a fatty acid

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28
Q

migrating motor complex

A
  • housekeeping

- going to sweep the foot remnants and bacteria out of the upper GI tracts and into the large intestine

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29
Q

peristalsis

A
  • refers to progressive waves of contractions that move down the GI tract
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30
Q

segmental contraction

A
  • is the alternating contraction of segments within the intestine
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31
Q

tonic contraction

A

sustained for a long period of time - sustained in smooth muscle sphincters and anterior region of the stomach

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32
Q

phasic contraction

A

only lasts for a few seconds

- posterior regions of the stomach and small intestine

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33
Q

cephalic phase

A

anticipation of food, and first contact with the mouth

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34
Q

lysozyme

A

are in the saliva - they are the first lines of defense against bacteria and viruses

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35
Q

salivary amylase

A

starts to breakdown starch in the mouth - it is what starts the process of chemical digestion

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36
Q

basal metabolic rate

A

energy required for basic physiological function

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37
Q

absorptive state

A

period of time after a meal where products of digestion are being absorbed, used for energy and then stored, this is anabolic

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38
Q

post absorptive state

A

availability of nutrients in the blood begins to decrease

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39
Q

glycolysis

A

process of breaking down glucose

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40
Q

glycogenolysis

A

process of breaking down glycogen to glucose, this will increase blood glucose levels

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41
Q

glucogenesis

A

process of breaking down amino acids to glucose - this will increase blood glucose

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42
Q

lipolysis

A

breaks down stored triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids

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43
Q

lipogenesis

A

storing glucose as fat

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44
Q

GLUT transporters

A

bring glucose to cells

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45
Q

VLDL

A

very low density lipoprotein - little protein, associated with hypercholesterolemia (this is bad)

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46
Q

Glucagon

A

is dominant in the fasted state, secreted when blood glucose levels decrease after a meal to prevent hypoglycaemia

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47
Q

Insulin

A

is dominant in the fed state, is secreted when blood glucose levels increase, is secreted to lower blood glucose levels

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48
Q

HDL

A

high density lipoprotein - lots of protein - good cholesterol (healthy)

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49
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

modified endoplasmic reticulum that wraps around the myofibril

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50
Q

T tubule

A

continuation of muscle fiber membrane

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51
Q

fever

A

increase in body temperature from infection or inflammation

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52
Q

Neuromuscular junction

A

highly specialized synapse between a motor neuron nerve terminal and its muscle fibers

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53
Q

dihydropyridine receptor

A

voltage dependent calcium channel

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54
Q

ryanodine receptor

A

responsible for the release of Ca 2+ from intracellular stores during e-c coupling in both cardiac and skeletal muscle

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55
Q

latent period

A

delay between muscle action potential and start of muscle tension

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56
Q

motor unit

A

one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates

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57
Q

Myosin ATPase

A

catalyzes the hydrolysis of myosin ATP in the presence of actin to form myosin ADP

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58
Q

Calmodulin

A

binding protein

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59
Q

electromechanical coupling

A

contraction initiated by electrical signals

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60
Q

pharmacomechanical coupling

A

smooth muscle contraction (and relaxation) controlled by chemical signals without significant change in membrane potentials

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61
Q

pacemaker potentials

A

cells that have oscillating membrane potentials can have regular depolarizations that always reach threshold (fire an action potential)

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62
Q

slow wave potentials

A

cells exhibit cyclic depolarization and repolarization, can result in action potentials in cell reaches threshold

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63
Q

chemoreceptor

A

have chemical ligands (taste and smell)

64
Q

mechanoreceptor

A

respond to mechanical energy (pressure, vibration)

65
Q

thermoreceptor

A

respond to change in temperature

66
Q

photoreceptors

A

respond to change in light

67
Q

sensory receptor threshold

A

minimum stimulus required to activate the receptor

68
Q

sensory receptor potential

A

change in sensory receptor membrane potential

69
Q

receptive field

A

physical area within which a stimulus will activate neurons

70
Q

convergence

A

multiple presynaptic neurons provide signals to a smaller number of post synaptic neurons

71
Q

second/third order neurons

A

will bring information to the thalamus, but sometimes directly to the cortex, second order neurons will typically synapse with third order neurons that bring information to the cortex for conscious perception

72
Q

thalamus

A

relay station - passes info onto the cerebellum (excluding olfactory information)

73
Q

habituation

A

decreased perception of a stimulus

74
Q

perceptual threshold

A

level of stimulus intensity required for you to be aware of the sensation (is the threshold for conscious awareness)

75
Q

lateral inhibition

A

strongest signal drowns out signals next it when one receptor is activated

76
Q

tonic receptor

A

slowly adapting

  • fire rapidly at first
  • slow and maintain firing as long as there is a stimulus present
77
Q

phasic receptor

A

rapidly adapting receptors

- fire when stimulus is first received, stop if strength of stimulus is constant

78
Q

proprioception

A

awareness of where your body is, in space.

79
Q

proprioception

A

awareness of where your body is, in space.

80
Q

nociceptors

A

includes pain & itch

81
Q

somatosensory cortex

A

recognizes where ascending tracts originate, it is located right behind the motor cortex, which is the pre central gyrus and is located within the parietal lobe of the brain

82
Q

olfactory epithelium

A

is a 3cm2 path where olfactory sensory neurons are concentrated (nasal cavity)
- these neurons have a short life span

83
Q

tympanic membrane

A

also known as the ear drum

84
Q

Eustachian tube

A

connects the middle ear with the nasal sinus cavity

85
Q

incus, malleus, stapes

A

the 3 small bones in the ear

  • they connect to each other with hinges
  • malleus attached to tympanic membranes
  • stapes attached to membrane separating middle and inner ear (oval window)
86
Q

vestibular apparatus

A

structure within the ear that is responsible for equilibrium

87
Q

cochlea

A

membranous tube shaped like snail shell, with sensory receptors for hearing

88
Q

vestibulocochlear nerve

A

leads from inner ear to brain, transmits both hearing and equilibrium information to the brain

89
Q

oval window

A

separate the fluid filled cochlea from air filled middle ear

90
Q

hair cells

A

sense movement of endolymph in various directions

91
Q

sound transduction

A

the process by which the ear converts sound waves into electric impulses and sends them to the brain so we can interpret them as a sound

92
Q

conductive hearing loss

A

where sound cannot pass through external or middle ear.

- can sometimes be fixed with surgery

93
Q

central hearing loss

A

damage to neural pathways, such as stroke

94
Q

otolith membrane

A

plays a critical role in the brain’s interpretation of equilibrium

95
Q

pupil / lens

A 
pupil = opening where light enters 
Lens = transparent disk for focusing light
96
Q

aqueous humor

A

plasma like fluid - that fills chamber in front of lens

97
Q

ciliary muscle

A

adjusts lens shape for focussing

98
Q

vitreous chamber

A

right behind the lens - maintains the shape of the eye ball

99
Q

sclera

A

outer wall of the eyeball (connective tissues) - white part of the eye

100
Q

phototransduction

A

the process of converting light energy into electrical signals

101
Q

autonomic reflex

A

unconscious motor reflexes relayed from the organs and glands to the CNS through visceral afferent signalling

102
Q

somatic reflex

A

involuntary response to a stimulus, that usually affects skeletal muscle

103
Q

spinal reflex

A

integrated in spinal cord; can occur without any input from the brain

104
Q

cranial reflex

A

reflexes integrated in the brain

105
Q

innate reflex

A

we are born with them (knee jerk)

106
Q

learned reflex

A

acquired through experience (eg, Pavlov’s dog salivating)

107
Q

monosynaptic reflex

A

a single synapse between two neurons in a pathway - there is a sensory neuron an efferent neuron somatic neuron

108
Q

polysynaptic reflex

A

complex, with extensive branching in CNS; multiple interneurons. there are at least 2 synapses. most reflexes are polysynaptic

109
Q

polysynaptic reflex

A

complex, with extensive branching in CNS; multiple interneurons. there are at least 2 synapses. most reflexes are polysynaptic

110
Q

muscle spindles

A
  • stretch receptors
    send information to the spinal cord
  • there are several per muscle, and are arranged in parallel fibers
111
Q

golgi tendons

A

respond to muscle tension

- found at the junction created during isometric contraction (not stretch)

112
Q

muscle tone

A

resting muscle still has tension

113
Q

flexion reflex

A

a polysynaptic reflex pathway that cause withdrawal from noxious stimuli

114
Q

central pattern generator

A

are neural circuits that produce rhythmic outputs in the absence of rhythmic input

115
Q

active hyperaemia

A

increase in blood flow that accompanies an increase in metabolic activity

116
Q

reactive hyperaemia

A

occurs if blood flow to tissue is temporarily occluded (cut off)

117
Q

myogenic auto regulation

A

ability of vascular smooth muscle to regulate its own state of contraction

118
Q

adenosine

A

vasodilator paracrine

- released by hypoxic cells to increase blood flow - important to maintain oxygenation to all of our tissues

119
Q

serotonin

A

CNS neurotransmitter, but also released by active platelets (vasoconstriction prevents blood loss)

120
Q

B2 receptors

A

blood vessels that have more B2 receptors respond to fight or flight effect by dilating

121
Q

Baroreceptor reflex

A

important in regulating blood pressure

- increase in pressure causing a change in input stimulus in our CVCC

122
Q

arterial chemoreceptors

A

activated by low blood O2

- leads to increase in cardiac output

123
Q

Bulk flow

A

a type of passive exchange

124
Q

capillary filtration

A

bulk flow out of capillaries

125
Q

capillary absorption

A

bulk flow into capillaries

126
Q

capillary blood pressure

A

pressure exerted on capillary walls by the blood

  • tends to force fluid out of the capillaries into the interstitial fluid
  • strongest at arterial end
127
Q

plasma colloid pressure

A

force caused by colloidal dispersion of plasma proteins

- encourages fluid movement into capillaries

128
Q

lymph vessels

A

formed from convergence of initial lymphatic, eventually empty into venous system near where blood enters right atrium

129
Q

lymph nodes

A

have phagocytes which destrory bacteria filtered from interstitial fluid - help protect from disease

130
Q

oedema

A

swelling of tissues which occurs when too much interstitial fluid accumulates

131
Q

hypertension

A

blood pressure >140/90

132
Q

respiratory control centre

A

the medulla oblongata

133
Q

central chemoreceptor

A

in the brain respond to changes in cerebrospinal fluid CO2 levels

134
Q

peripheral chemoreceptor

A

located in carotid & aortic arteries

- respond to changes in O2, CO2, and pH

135
Q

hypercapnia

A

an increase of partial pressure of CO2

136
Q

bronchoconstriction

A

mediated by parasympathetic neurons in bronchiolar smooth muscle
- initiated by irritant particles or noxious gages

137
Q

EPOC

A

oxygen consumption remains higher at rest after an exercise

138
Q

phosphocreatine

A

used to replenish ATP

139
Q

acclimatization

A

adaptations of repeated heat exposure:

  • sweating starts sooner
  • increased sweat volume
  • more dilute sweat
140
Q

antigen

A

any substance that triggers the immune system to produce antibodies against it

141
Q

antibodies

A

proteins secreted by certain immune cells

142
Q

innate immunity

A

present from birth
- the cells that are involved in innate immunity have a very broad specificity which allows them to respond to many different signals and pathogens

143
Q

cytokine

A

protein messengers released by one cell that affects growth/activity of another cell

144
Q

acquired immunity

A

specific responds for specific invaders

- the cells involved in acquired immunity are highly specific and can distinguish between different types of pathogens

145
Q

primary lymphoid tissues

A

include thymus gland and bone marrow.

- these are sites where immune cells are formed & mature

146
Q

secondary lymphoid tissues

A

divided into

  1. encapsulated tissues: (spleen & lymph nodes) have an outer fibrous capsule wall around them
  2. Diffuse lymphoid tissues (aggregations of immune cells in body tissues)
147
Q

phagocyte

A

engulf and ingest targets; include neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages, monocytes

148
Q

cytotoxic cell

A

toxic cells - kills the cells they attack

- includes eosinophils & some types of lymphocytes

149
Q

antigen presenting cells

A

help recruit additional cells to fight the infection

150
Q

natural kill cells

A

kill cells that have been infected with the virus

151
Q

histamine

A

released when mast cells degranulate

152
Q

inflammation

A

hallmark of cytokine mediated innate immunity

153
Q

B & T Lymphocytes

A

b - produce antibody molecules

t - determine the specificity of immune response to antigens in the body

154
Q

naive lymphocytes

A

are activated when first exposed to an antigen

155
Q

clonal expansion

A

is when the activated lymphocyte called the clone replicates itself

156
Q

primary immune response

A

initial exposure

- less antibody producers (produced more slowly)

157
Q

secondary immune response

A

subsequent exposure

- much quicker and larger response

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