Final Exam terms Flashcards
1
Q
Catabolism
A
the breakdown of large biomolecules, energy is released from an high energy body
2
Q
anabolism
A
The creation of large biomolecules (transfer of energy into covalent bonds of macromolecules)
3
Q
acetyl CoA
A
Is a molecule that participates in many biomechanics reactions in protein, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism
4
Q
Pyruvate
A
it is the output of metabolism of glucose known as glycolysis
5
Q
lactate
A
lactate can be used for itself for energy more directly, it can also be recycled into glucose through glucogenesis
6
Q
Citric acid cycle
A
- 2 carbon acyl units join 4 carbon oxaloacetate to make 6 carbon citrate
- energy is lost as heat
- full oxidation of glucose molecules yields 30-32
7
Q
electron transport chain
A
- takes high energy electrons from NADH and FADH 2
- energy is used to create ATP by creating an H+ gradient
- oxygen is the final acceptor of electron and H to make H20
8
Q
lipophobic hormone
A
water soluble hormones
- usually bind to surface receptors
- “fat hating”
9
Q
lipophilic hormone
A
- hydrophobic hormones
- not soluble in water, soluble in fat
10
Q
hormone signal transduction
A
- signal transduction is a process by which a peptide hormone transfers specific information from the outside of the target cell to elicit a cellular response
11
Q
peptide hormone
A
- are water soluble, lipophobic
- composed of linked amino acids
- most hormones fall into this category
- eg. insulin, glucagon, vasopressin
12
Q
steroid hormone
A
- derived from cholesterol
- lipophilic, hydrophobic
- eg. cortisol, aldosterone
13
Q
amine hormone
A
- modification of a single amino acid
- eg. catecholamines
14
Q
simple endocrine reflex
A
the cell senses stimulus, and responds by releasing hormones
- cell is both the sensory and integrating centre
15
Q
catecholamine
A
- act like peptide hormones, this includes norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine, which are all neurohormones
16
Q
pituitary gland
A
master gland in the body, controls endocrine function in all other glands
17
Q
tropic hormone
A
control the secretion of other hormones
18
Q
growth hormone
A
- most abundant hormone produced by the anterior pituitary
- acts on body tissues instead of influencing glands
- secretion decreases with age
19
Q
thyroid stimulating hormone
A
- stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone and growth of the thyroid gland
20
Q
adrenocorticotropic hormone
A
- the hypothalamus release corticotropin releasing hormone which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH, which stimulates cortisol release
21
Q
hyper secretion
A
- leads to hormone excess
22
Q
hypo secretion
A
- too little hormone is produced
23
Q
down regulation
A
- high hormone secretion leads to down regulation of response (receptors)
24
Q
synergism
A
the combined effect of two hormones is greater than the sum of the individual hormone effects
25
lipase
carry out enzymatic fat digestions
26
triglyceride
derived from glycerol and 3 fatty acids
| - main constituents of body fat in humans
27
monoglyceride
composed of a molecule of glycerol linked to a fatty acid
28
migrating motor complex
- housekeeping
| - going to sweep the foot remnants and bacteria out of the upper GI tracts and into the large intestine
29
peristalsis
- refers to progressive waves of contractions that move down the GI tract
30
segmental contraction
- is the alternating contraction of segments within the intestine
31
tonic contraction
sustained for a long period of time - sustained in smooth muscle sphincters and anterior region of the stomach
32
phasic contraction
only lasts for a few seconds
| - posterior regions of the stomach and small intestine
33
cephalic phase
anticipation of food, and first contact with the mouth
34
lysozyme
are in the saliva - they are the first lines of defense against bacteria and viruses
35
salivary amylase
starts to breakdown starch in the mouth - it is what starts the process of chemical digestion
36
basal metabolic rate
energy required for basic physiological function
37
absorptive state
period of time after a meal where products of digestion are being absorbed, used for energy and then stored, this is anabolic
38
post absorptive state
availability of nutrients in the blood begins to decrease
39
glycolysis
process of breaking down glucose
40
glycogenolysis
process of breaking down glycogen to glucose, this will increase blood glucose levels
41
glucogenesis
process of breaking down amino acids to glucose - this will increase blood glucose
42
lipolysis
breaks down stored triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids
43
lipogenesis
storing glucose as fat
44
GLUT transporters
bring glucose to cells
45
VLDL
very low density lipoprotein - little protein, associated with hypercholesterolemia (this is bad)
46
Glucagon
is dominant in the fasted state, secreted when blood glucose levels decrease after a meal to prevent hypoglycaemia
47
Insulin
is dominant in the fed state, is secreted when blood glucose levels increase, is secreted to lower blood glucose levels
48
HDL
high density lipoprotein - lots of protein - good cholesterol (healthy)
49
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
modified endoplasmic reticulum that wraps around the myofibril
50
T tubule
continuation of muscle fiber membrane
51
fever
increase in body temperature from infection or inflammation
52
Neuromuscular junction
highly specialized synapse between a motor neuron nerve terminal and its muscle fibers
53
dihydropyridine receptor
voltage dependent calcium channel
54
ryanodine receptor
responsible for the release of Ca 2+ from intracellular stores during e-c coupling in both cardiac and skeletal muscle
55
latent period
delay between muscle action potential and start of muscle tension
56
motor unit
one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates
57
Myosin ATPase
catalyzes the hydrolysis of myosin ATP in the presence of actin to form myosin ADP
58
Calmodulin
binding protein
59
electromechanical coupling
contraction initiated by electrical signals
60
pharmacomechanical coupling
smooth muscle contraction (and relaxation) controlled by chemical signals without significant change in membrane potentials
61
pacemaker potentials
cells that have oscillating membrane potentials can have regular depolarizations that always reach threshold (fire an action potential)
62
slow wave potentials
cells exhibit cyclic depolarization and repolarization, can result in action potentials in cell reaches threshold
63
chemoreceptor
have chemical ligands (taste and smell)
64
mechanoreceptor
respond to mechanical energy (pressure, vibration)
65
thermoreceptor
respond to change in temperature
66
photoreceptors
respond to change in light
67
sensory receptor threshold
minimum stimulus required to activate the receptor
68
sensory receptor potential
change in sensory receptor membrane potential
69
receptive field
physical area within which a stimulus will activate neurons
70
convergence
multiple presynaptic neurons provide signals to a smaller number of post synaptic neurons
71
second/third order neurons
will bring information to the thalamus, but sometimes directly to the cortex, second order neurons will typically synapse with third order neurons that bring information to the cortex for conscious perception
72
thalamus
relay station - passes info onto the cerebellum (excluding olfactory information)
73
habituation
decreased perception of a stimulus
74
perceptual threshold
level of stimulus intensity required for you to be aware of the sensation (is the threshold for conscious awareness)
75
lateral inhibition
strongest signal drowns out signals next it when one receptor is activated
76
tonic receptor
slowly adapting
- fire rapidly at first
- slow and maintain firing as long as there is a stimulus present
77
phasic receptor
rapidly adapting receptors
| - fire when stimulus is first received, stop if strength of stimulus is constant
78
proprioception
awareness of where your body is, in space.
79
proprioception
awareness of where your body is, in space.
80
nociceptors
includes pain & itch
81
somatosensory cortex
recognizes where ascending tracts originate, it is located right behind the motor cortex, which is the pre central gyrus and is located within the parietal lobe of the brain
82
olfactory epithelium
is a 3cm2 path where olfactory sensory neurons are concentrated (nasal cavity)
- these neurons have a short life span
83
tympanic membrane
also known as the ear drum
84
Eustachian tube
connects the middle ear with the nasal sinus cavity
85
incus, malleus, stapes
the 3 small bones in the ear
- they connect to each other with hinges
- malleus attached to tympanic membranes
- stapes attached to membrane separating middle and inner ear (oval window)
86
vestibular apparatus
structure within the ear that is responsible for equilibrium
87
cochlea
membranous tube shaped like snail shell, with sensory receptors for hearing
88
vestibulocochlear nerve
leads from inner ear to brain, transmits both hearing and equilibrium information to the brain
89
oval window
separate the fluid filled cochlea from air filled middle ear
90
hair cells
sense movement of endolymph in various directions
91
sound transduction
the process by which the ear converts sound waves into electric impulses and sends them to the brain so we can interpret them as a sound
92
conductive hearing loss
where sound cannot pass through external or middle ear.
| - can sometimes be fixed with surgery
93
central hearing loss
damage to neural pathways, such as stroke
94
otolith membrane
plays a critical role in the brain's interpretation of equilibrium
95
pupil / lens
```
pupil = opening where light enters
Lens = transparent disk for focusing light
```
96
aqueous humor
plasma like fluid - that fills chamber in front of lens
97
ciliary muscle
adjusts lens shape for focussing
98
vitreous chamber
right behind the lens - maintains the shape of the eye ball
99
sclera
outer wall of the eyeball (connective tissues) - white part of the eye
100
phototransduction
the process of converting light energy into electrical signals
101
autonomic reflex
unconscious motor reflexes relayed from the organs and glands to the CNS through visceral afferent signalling
102
somatic reflex
involuntary response to a stimulus, that usually affects skeletal muscle
103
spinal reflex
integrated in spinal cord; can occur without any input from the brain
104
cranial reflex
reflexes integrated in the brain
105
innate reflex
we are born with them (knee jerk)
106
learned reflex
acquired through experience (eg, Pavlov's dog salivating)
107
monosynaptic reflex
a single synapse between two neurons in a pathway - there is a sensory neuron an efferent neuron somatic neuron
108
polysynaptic reflex
complex, with extensive branching in CNS; multiple interneurons. there are at least 2 synapses. most reflexes are polysynaptic
109
polysynaptic reflex
complex, with extensive branching in CNS; multiple interneurons. there are at least 2 synapses. most reflexes are polysynaptic
110
muscle spindles
- stretch receptors
send information to the spinal cord
- there are several per muscle, and are arranged in parallel fibers
111
golgi tendons
respond to muscle tension
| - found at the junction created during isometric contraction (not stretch)
112
muscle tone
resting muscle still has tension
113
flexion reflex
a polysynaptic reflex pathway that cause withdrawal from noxious stimuli
114
central pattern generator
are neural circuits that produce rhythmic outputs in the absence of rhythmic input
115
active hyperaemia
increase in blood flow that accompanies an increase in metabolic activity
116
reactive hyperaemia
occurs if blood flow to tissue is temporarily occluded (cut off)
117
myogenic auto regulation
ability of vascular smooth muscle to regulate its own state of contraction
118
adenosine
vasodilator paracrine
| - released by hypoxic cells to increase blood flow - important to maintain oxygenation to all of our tissues
119
serotonin
CNS neurotransmitter, but also released by active platelets (vasoconstriction prevents blood loss)
120
B2 receptors
blood vessels that have more B2 receptors respond to fight or flight effect by dilating
121
Baroreceptor reflex
important in regulating blood pressure
| - increase in pressure causing a change in input stimulus in our CVCC
122
arterial chemoreceptors
activated by low blood O2
| - leads to increase in cardiac output
123
Bulk flow
a type of passive exchange
124
capillary filtration
bulk flow out of capillaries
125
capillary absorption
bulk flow into capillaries
126
capillary blood pressure
pressure exerted on capillary walls by the blood
- tends to force fluid out of the capillaries into the interstitial fluid
- strongest at arterial end
127
plasma colloid pressure
force caused by colloidal dispersion of plasma proteins
| - encourages fluid movement into capillaries
128
lymph vessels
formed from convergence of initial lymphatic, eventually empty into venous system near where blood enters right atrium
129
lymph nodes
have phagocytes which destrory bacteria filtered from interstitial fluid - help protect from disease
130
oedema
swelling of tissues which occurs when too much interstitial fluid accumulates
131
hypertension
blood pressure >140/90
132
respiratory control centre
the medulla oblongata
133
central chemoreceptor
in the brain respond to changes in cerebrospinal fluid CO2 levels
134
peripheral chemoreceptor
located in carotid & aortic arteries
| - respond to changes in O2, CO2, and pH
135
hypercapnia
an increase of partial pressure of CO2
136
bronchoconstriction
mediated by parasympathetic neurons in bronchiolar smooth muscle
- initiated by irritant particles or noxious gages
137
EPOC
oxygen consumption remains higher at rest after an exercise
138
phosphocreatine
used to replenish ATP
139
acclimatization
adaptations of repeated heat exposure:
- sweating starts sooner
- increased sweat volume
- more dilute sweat
140
antigen
any substance that triggers the immune system to produce antibodies against it
141
antibodies
proteins secreted by certain immune cells
142
innate immunity
present from birth
- the cells that are involved in innate immunity have a very broad specificity which allows them to respond to many different signals and pathogens
143
cytokine
protein messengers released by one cell that affects growth/activity of another cell
144
acquired immunity
specific responds for specific invaders
| - the cells involved in acquired immunity are highly specific and can distinguish between different types of pathogens
145
primary lymphoid tissues
include thymus gland and bone marrow.
| - these are sites where immune cells are formed & mature
146
secondary lymphoid tissues
divided into
1. encapsulated tissues: (spleen & lymph nodes) have an outer fibrous capsule wall around them
2. Diffuse lymphoid tissues (aggregations of immune cells in body tissues)
147
phagocyte
engulf and ingest targets; include neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages, monocytes
148
cytotoxic cell
toxic cells - kills the cells they attack
| - includes eosinophils & some types of lymphocytes
149
antigen presenting cells
help recruit additional cells to fight the infection
150
natural kill cells
kill cells that have been infected with the virus
151
histamine
released when mast cells degranulate
152
inflammation
hallmark of cytokine mediated innate immunity
153
B & T Lymphocytes
b - produce antibody molecules
| t - determine the specificity of immune response to antigens in the body
154
naive lymphocytes
are activated when first exposed to an antigen
155
clonal expansion
is when the activated lymphocyte called the clone replicates itself
156
primary immune response
initial exposure
| - less antibody producers (produced more slowly)
157
secondary immune response
subsequent exposure
| - much quicker and larger response
