FINAL Flashcards
what does vertebrate translate to
animal with metameric skeletal elements supporting a dorsal hollow nerve cord
what does anatomy translate to
anatomia, structure, morphology
what is metamerism
repeating units
what is one flaw in the word vertebrate
hagfish dont have vertebrae
what does anatomia translate to
cutting up or dissection
what is interspecific
between species
what is intraspecific
within species
give an example of interspecific
locomotion and bipedalism of humans versus gorillas
give an example of intraspecific
the different kinds of vertebrae in a human
what is the inominate bone
ilium + ischium + pubis
what are the three subphyla of the chordates
cephalochordata, urochordata, vertebrata
what is found within the urochordata
tunicates (sea squirts)
what is found within the cephalochordata
amphioxious (lancelets)
a vertebrate is a deuterostome, what does this mean
it refers to the anus being formed first from the blastopore during development
what is an example of a hemichordate
acord worm
what is osteology
the study of bones
what is a craniate
an organism that possesses a cranium (bone or cartilage)
what are the three classes in subphylum urochordata
ascidiacea, larvaceae, thaliaceae
what subphylum has their notochord only in the tail
urochordates
what subphylum has notocord in head and tail
cephalochordates
what are the 5 chordate features
notochord, dorsal hollow nerve chord, pharyngeal openings, post anal tail, endostyle
what is a notochord
endoskeletal structure
what is the dorsal hollow nerve chord
main nerve chord of the body, anteriorily forms the brain
what is the function of the post anal tail
generally used for locomotion or balance
what is the function of the endostyle
it acts as a food trap in some organisms (thyroid in some)
what does deuterostome translate to
secondary mouth
what are the deuterostomes
chordates, echinoderms, hemichordates
how is short term ATP synthesis done in deuterostomes
phosphocreatine
how is short term ATP synthesis done in non-deuterostomes
phosphoargine
whats the difference between phosphocreatine and phosphoargine
same function, different molecule
why would an organism use phosphocreatine or phosphoargine
gives energy faster than anaerobic respiration
what was the first theory of chordate origins and who did it come from
annelid-arthropod
dorsal ventral inversion
1822 geoffroy st. hillaire
what was the second theory of chordate origins and did it come from
auricularian hypothesis
chordates arise from echinoderm larvae and tunicate larvae
1928 Garstang
what is the current theory of chordate origins
earliest chordates came from cephanochordates which probably came from hemichordates
give an example of species that would fit into the current theory of chordate origins
acorn worm –> lancelet –> cat
what is an auricularian in short
type of deuterostome larvae that is a dipleureae (comes from sea cucumbers)
why was st hillaire’s chordate origins theory proven wrong
convergent evolution
what is histology
the study of tissues
what is a tissue
a group of similar cells performing a common function
what are the ways cells can be performing a common function
appearance, morphology, embryonic
what is a cell in relation to histology
fundamental living elements
what is the matrix in relation to histology
acellular, non-living components surrounding the cells (goop between the cells)
what are the four primary tissue types
epithelia, connective tissue, muscle, nervous tissue
what is epithelial tissue
the tissue that lines organs (inner most and outermost tissue)
describe epithelial tissue
absorbent, secretory, or protective
how are epithelial cell tissues classified
cell shape, stratification
what is the difference between apical and basal epithelial tissues
apical is top or surface cells, basal is bottom cells or inner cells where other cells adhere to
what is the density of epithelial cells
high cell density, little matrix
what does it mean that a tissue is stratified
it has layers
what are the three types of epithelial cells
squamos, cuboidal, columnar
where can you find squamos cells (epithelial tissue)
kidney, lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels
what is the function of cuboidal epithelium
secretion and absorption
where can cuboidal epithelia cells be found
kidney tubules, ducts, secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface
what is a pseudocolumnar epithelium
varying lengths of epithelial cells make it look like theres layers
what are connective tissues
lots of matrix (bone and cartilage)
how do epithelial cells adhere to basal membrane
by proteins
what do echinoderm larvae look like
bilaterally symmetrical, 2 bands cilia, complete gut
give example of auricularian theory
echinoderm to hemichordate to chordate
what are the periods in the paleozoic era
cambrian, ordovician, silurian, devonian, carboniferous, permian (can older students develop crappy personalities)
what are the periods in the mesozoic era
triassic, jurassic, cretaceous
when was the age of fishes
silurian, devonian, carboniferous, permian
what MYA was paleozoic era
575-230
what MYA was mesozoic era
230-65
how many MYA was pikaia
530
when did the gnathosomes appear
ordovician
when did amphibians appear
devonian
when did reptiles appear
carboniferous
when did therapsids appear
permian
when did mammals and dinosaurs appear
triassic
what were the ostracoderms
early agnathan fishes with dermal bone
what are the oldest bones found in fossil records
dermal bone
what are examples of dermal bone in modern day
turtle shells, fish scales
what is paedomorphosis
retention of juvenile characteristics in adults
what was myllokunmingia
lower cambrian craniate
what was haikouichthys
lower cambrian vertebrate
what are the 10 characteristics of a vertebrate
5 of chordate, integument with dermis and epidermis, complete digestive system, advanced circulatory system, excretory system, endocrine system
where is the vertebrate digestive system in relation to the spinal column
digestive system is ventral in relation to spinal column
what is the endocrine system
series of ductless glands with secretory products (hormones) released directly into the blood
why is it difficult to identify notochord cells
they look like adipose cells
what is the notochord replaced by in most vertebrates
usually replaced by vertebrae
what does the dorsal hollow nerve chord usually contain
usually has an anterior cranial expansion
what kind of expansion is a traditional brain
tripartite meaning three bulbs of expansion on the anterior end of the dorsal hollow nerve chord
what is typical of most vertebrates to do with their “brain”
encase it with a cranium (bone or cartilage)
what on the blastopore forms the notochord
the blastoporal lip
who experimented with putting two blastoporal lips on the same blastopore
spemann
what classes comprise the agnathans
ostracoderms, pteraspidomorphi, conodonita, myxinoidea, pteromyzontida
what does agnathan mean
absence of jaw (jawless fishes)
what is found in class chondrictes
cartilagenous fishes (sharks skates rays)
what is found in acanthodii
spiny fishes
what is found in actinopterygii
ray finned fishes
what is found in sarcopterygii
fleshy finned fishes
which portion of the skeleton is oldest
axial
what portion of the skelton is newest
appendicular
how many planes of sectioning are there to bilaterally symmetrical organisms
3 planes of symmetry
what are the three distinct origins of the mammalian skull
splanchnocranium, chrondrocranium, dermatocranium
which region of the skull is oldest
splanchnocranium
what is the splanchnocranium associated with
the pharynx
what is the chrondrocranium associated with
surrounds the bottom and the sides of the brain
what is the dermatocranium associated with
the top of the brain box
what is a demifacet
dent in thoracic ribs where rib touches
what is the first vertebrae
C1 is the atlas (holds up cranium)
what is the second vertebrae
C2 is the axis
what classes are in the teleostomi
acanthodii, actinopterygii, sarcopterygii
what class of fishes did mammals evolve from
sarcopterygii
if you are not an amniote then what are you
if not amniote then anamniote
what are the anamniotes
fishes and amphibians
what are the amniotes
birds, mammals, reptiles
what does it mean that youre an amniote
you dont have to deposit your eggs in water (can create own water in an egg)
bone and cartilage are very similar but primarily differ in what
they differ in their matrix
what are the three types of cartilage
fibrocartilage, elastic cartilage, hyaline cartilage
what are the two kinds of bone
spongy bone, compact bone
what are the caudata
salamanders
adipose cells are filled with fat, notochord cells are filled with what
filled with water
what does it mean to be a vacuoled cell
most of the cell is occupied by something else (ex. adipose and notochord)
with vacuoled cells there is usually a sheath covering the mass of cells. what is this sheath made of
collagen
what are the disks between vertebrae
annulus of fibrocartilage with nucleus pulpous in between
where can notochord cells be found in adult mammals
in the nucleous pulpous of the vertebral disks
what can mesenchyme produce
fibroblast, chondroblast, osteoblast, hematopoetic stem cell
what do fibroblasts produce
connective tissues (fat, skin)
what do chondroblasts produce
cartilage
what do osteoblasts form
bone
what do hematopoetic stem cells produce
blood
what is mesenchyme
embryonic tissue made of migrating cells thats not found in sheets, but found in blobs (pleuripotent cells (stem))
what does blast mean
forming
what is matrix composed of
collagen, elastic fibres, proteoglycans
what are proteoglycans
core protein with link proteins with glycosaminoglycans (looks like test tube cleaning brush)
what are the 6 types of glycosaminoglycans (GAG’s)
hyaluronate, chondroitin sulfate, heparin sulfate, heparin, dermatan sulfate, keratin sulfate
are GAG’s hydrophilic or hydrophobic
hydrophilic
Where is hyaluronate found (GAG)
synovial fluid, vitreous humour, ECM of loose connective tissue, large polymers, shock absorbing
where is chondroitin sulfate found (GAG)
cartilage, bone, heart valves
what is the most abundant of the GAG’s
chondroitin sulfate
where is heparan sulfate found (GAG)
basement membranes, components of cell surfaces
where is heparin found (GAG)
intracellular granules of mast cells, line arteries of lungs liver and skin
where is dermatan sulfate found (GAG)
skin, blood vessels, heart valves
where is keratin sulfate found (GAG)
cornea, bone, cartilage (makes things waterproof)
in general how is cartilage formed
mesenchyme to chondroblast then GAGs surround chondroblast then GAGs surrounded by a lacuna shell. once surrounded by lacuna its cartilage
whats a place you could find elastic cartilage
ears
whats the function of elastic cartilage
maintains shape of structure while allowing great flexibility (more elastic fibres in matrix)
where can fibrocartilage be found
intervertebral joints, pubic symphyses, discs of knee joints
whats the function of fibrocartilage
tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock
what is the predominant fiber in fibrocartilage matrix
thick collagen fibers
where can hyaline cartilage be found
embryonic skeleton, covers ends of long bones, costal cartilage on ribs, cartilage of nose, trachea, larynx
whats the function of hyaline cartilage
supports and reinforces, resilient cushioning, resists comprehensive stress
what is osseous tissue
bone
what is compact bone
cortical bone thats outside bone (flat bone)
what is spongy bone
cancelous, inside spongy bone (network of osseous tissue)
what is osteogenesis
the formation of bone
what are the two types of osteogenesis
intramembranous
cartilage replacement
what is osteogenesis in the form of intramembranous bone formation
happens to flat bone of skull and clavicles, happens within fibrous connective membrane
what is osteogenesis in the form of cartilage replacement bone formation
happens in most skeletal elements, can be perichondral or endochondral
what is an ossification center
the site of bone formation
what engages osteogenesis
osteoblasts
what removes existing bone
osteoclasts
what maintains fully formed bone
osteocytes
in what kind of development is the first formative bone nonlamellar
endochondral and intramembranous
what is another name for nonlamellar bone
immature bone or woven bone
what is nonlamellar bone
lots of cells interspersed amongst irregularly strewn bundles of collagen
what is perichondral
on the outside
what is endochondral
on the innermost
what is lamellar bone
mature bone
what does osteogenesis start with
local aggregations of loosel arranged mesenchymal cells
in what kind of osteogenesis formation is cartilage an intermediate
endochondral
when someone stops growing what has happened
their epiphysial plates have closed
what are the three regions have a bone
epiphysis, metaphysis, diaphysis
what is another name for the metaphysis
epiphyseal plate
what is the first step of bone formation from endochronral
loose cellections of mesenchymal cells consense to form hyaline cartilage
what is the second step of bone formation in endochondral
bone collar forms in region of diaphysis
what deposits the bone collar
cells on inner surface of diaphysis become osteoblasts and deposit the collar
what is happening in the bone at the same time as the formation of the bone collar
inorganic calcium salts accumulate in the matrix to calcify cartilage in the core of the diaphysis
what is the function of calcium in bone formation
calcify cartilage, seal off chondrocytes
what is the function of sealing off chrondrocytes in bone formation
seal them off so they die so vasculature can invade
when is the primary center of ossification established
when osteoblasts appear in the core of the bone
what happens in the center of ossification
old bits of calcified cartilage bone become overlaid by new bone
what are trabeculae
transitional composites of new bone
when are trabeculae considered bone spiracles
when an ossified matrix predominates
what do osteoclasts signal in osteogenesis
signals active nature of bone remodeling through matrix deposition and removal
what is the difference between osteoblast and osteoclast
blast deposits, clast removes
where is the active area of cartilage growth, calcification, cartilage removal, and new bone deposition
epiphyseal plates
what do chondrocytes do in response to approaching ossification
chondrocytes proliferate and hypertrophy as surrounding matrix calcifies
what lengthens bone
proliferation of cartilage in the epiphyses
what contributes to an increase in bone girth
continued depositon of bone under diaphyseal periosteum
why can fish grow larger even if reached sexual maturity
only bird and mammals stop growing when they reach adult and sexual maturity
what is the basic steps of osteogenesis
cartilage calcifies, blood vessels invade epiphyses, osteoblasts appear, new bone deposited
when do secondary centers of ossification appear in humans
at 2-3 years of age
when does the zone of ossification take over cartilage proliferation
at or shortly after mammals reach sexual maturity
what are the 5 chordate characteristics that all vertebrates have
notochord, pharyngeal openings, post anal tail, endostyle, dorsal hollow nerve cord
what are the innovations of chordates that are characteristic to vertebrates
cranium and vertebrae
what are vertebrae
series of separate bones or cartilage blocks firmly joined together as a back bone that defines the major axis of the body
what are between vertebrae
intervertebral disks
what are the 3 basic parts to a vertebra
centrum, neural arch, hemal arch
what structural element did early vertebrates rely o
has vertebrae but still mainly relied on the notochord
where does the notochord remain in advanced vertebrates
in the nucleous pulpous in the intervertebral disks
what is the function of a cranium
supports sensory organs in the head and encases or partially encases the brain
what does cephalization mean
anterior clustering of specialized sensory organs
what are the three parts of the brain
forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
what two kinds of cells give rise to most sensory organs in the head and are the source of most adult structures that distinuish vertebrates from chordates
neural crest cells, epidermal placodes
in what habitat are the earliest vertebrates found
marine waters
what are the three stages of vertebrate evolution
prevertebrates, agnathans, gnathostomes
what is a prevertebrate
suspension feeding organism that probably resembled amphioxious without burrowing habits
how did agnathans feed
use of a muscular pump to produce food bearing water current
where did the prevertebrates arise from
arose within protochordates
what two mechanical changes caused the shift from prevertebrate to vertebrate
pharynx developed encircling band of muscles, strong and springy cartilage replaced collagen in pharyngeal bars (this formed the muscular pump)
what removed the limits to size in early vertebrates
the loss of cilliary pump and the dominance of muscular pump
what did the muscular pump of prevertebrates allow for
allowed for larger body size, more complex feeding, addition of gills instead of pharyngeal openings
what are gills
complex, folded respiratory organs on pharyngeal pouches whose folds contain blood capillary beds capable of gas exchange
what are the folds of gills called
lamellae
what did the addition of gills allow for in vertebrates
allowed for increased respiratory demands made by organism due to increased activity
how did early vertebrates arise to the agnathan stage
appearance of muscular pharyngeal pump
what are the 5 agnathan groups
conodonts, pteraspidomorphi, ostracoderms, myxini, pteromyzontida
what kind of feeding did early gnathostomes posses
raptiorial and suction feeding
what removed size restriction of prey for gnathistomes
addition of jaws
if youre not a fish youre a ____
tetrapod
what are amniotes
vertebrates that wrap their embryos in an amnion
who are the anamniotes
fishes and amphibians
what are jaws derived from
phyrengeal arches
were ostracoderms vertebrates
no, notochord instead of vertebrae
ostracoderms were not considered craniates, why
they had a dermal bone head shield but not a chondral cranium
what do odontoblasts do
form dentin and enamel (mesenchymal derivatives)
how does dermal bone vary most significantly from other bone types
dermal bone has an enamel surface
what is the issue with having bone made of enamel and dentin
no blood vessels so its not reparable
what are the extant agnathans
hagfish and lampreys (myxini and pteryomyzontida)
what kind of larvae do lampreys have
ammocoete (kind of like amphioxious)
what kind of teeth do lampreys have
keratinized teeth (like finger nails)
lampreys and hagfish do not have arcualia when embryonic, what are arcualia
theyre embryonic structures that form vertebrae
whats the ecological difference between hagfish and lampreys
lampreys are ectoparasites
what kind of feeding do hagfish have
carrion feeding
what is carrion feeding
eat dead stuff
how many semicircular canals do lampreys have
2
how many semicircular canals do hagfish have
1
hagfish are unique in that they are isoosmotic, what is isoosmotic
organisms cells are in balance with the salt of the ocean
what organism displays knotting feeding when feeding
hagfish
what are the cyclostomes
hagfish and lamprey because they have circular mouths
where does the fossil data for hagfish and lampreys reach to
late devonian
all agnathans lack ____ and possess____
lack bone and possess a single nostril
what is the function of hagfish knotting
provides force to tear off food from a larger body
hagfish are hermaphrodites but they are not practicing hermaphrodites, what does this mean
they have both sets of gonads but only use one set, must have another hagfish present to reproduce
what kind of agnathan has vertebrae
some hagfish have embryonic vertebrae
what does it mean for water movement in the body of the hagfish that it is isoosmotic
no net flow o water in or out of the body (doesnt have to drink or pee)
what was most likely the direct ancestor to hagfish
invertebrates
how does a lamprey stay in place in moving water
grasps rock in mouth and holds it
what kind of feeding does the lamprey larva show
suspension feeding
what kind of fins do lamprey have
medial fins (paired fins and limbs absent)
when do the earliest vertebrates come from
early cambrian of China
what does the word conodont mean
cone teeth
what kind of feeding did conodonts have
selected and fed on larger food particles (prey)
when were ostracoderms most dominant
very late cambrian, silurian, early devonian
what was the first agnathan group to possess paired appendages
ostracoderms
what was the first vertebrate to have an intricate lateral line system
ostracoderms
what was the first vertebrate to have bone
ostracoderms
how large were most ostracoderms
minnow sized
what was the ostracoderm head shield
large bony plates of the head that were fused into a shield
what is the endoskeleton of ostracoderms made of
most fossils suggest cartilagenous endoskeletons
what is of interest in the fins of ostracoderms
paired muscular fins observed in the same position and vasculature as gnathostomes
what kind of falttening did ostracoderms have
dorsoventral
what are the three ostracoderm clades
pteraspidomorphs, osteostracans, anapsids
when do pteraspidomorphi ostracoderms appear
ordovician to late devonian
how many semicircular canals do pteraspidomorphi of the ostracoderms have
possess 2 semicircular canals
how many nares did pteraspidomorphi ostracoderms have
2
what did pteraspidomorphi never have and what did they sometimes have
sometimes had lateral and dorsal spines, and never has paired fins
ostracoderms body shapes were either fusiform or flattened, what does fusiform mean
spindle shaped
what was a popular tail morphology within the ostracoderms
hypocercal tail (bottom lobe longer than upper lobe)
what does the tail morphology of ostracoderms suggest
suggests ostracoderms did more open water swimming
what are the two early groups of jawed fishes
placoderms and acanthodii
when did acanthodii first appear
early sillurian
when did placoderms first appear
early sillurian
what was the early function of jaws
grasp, bite, crush prey (allowed for capturing of larger prey)
early gnathostomes has two types of paired fins, what were these fin types
pectoral and pelvic fins
where were the pectoral fins located on early gnathostomes
anterior
where were the pelvic fins located on early gnathostomes
posteriorly
what did paired fins allow for
stability and control
gnathostomes produced two major extant vertebrate groups, what are these two groups
chondrictes, teleostomi
what is within the chondrictes
sharks, skates, rays
what is within the teleostomi
bony fishes
when do placoderms date from
early silurian, flourished in devonian, gone in early carboniferous
what is different about the bone in ostracoderms versus placoderms
placoderms dont have dentin in their dermal bone
what distinguishes placoderms as a clade
bony thorax articulated with a bony head shield
what was the first fish to have internal bone
placoderms had the first internal bone (neural and hemal arches were ossified)
what was the size range for placoderms
hand sized to 30 feet long
what was probably the lifestyle of placoderms
benthic bottom feeders marine and freshwater
what are pelvic claspers
pelvic fins associated with internal fertilization (essentially penises)
placoderms were vivaparous, what does vivaparous mean
internal fertilization and give birth to live young
what group has the distinction of being the only major group of vertebrates to become entirely extinct without descendents
placoderms
what are within the elasmobranchs
(of chondrictes) its the sharks and the rays
what is within the holocephalans of chondrictes
chimearas (ratfish)
what is notable about the teeth of members in chondrictes
the teeth have serial replacement
what kind of scales do chondrictes have
placoid
when did chondrictes arise
early devonian
what kind of tail did placoderms have
heterocercal
why is it important to note the tail type of placoderms
heterocercal tail meant probably didnt have a swim bladder
what arch becomes the upper jaw
epibranchial cartilage of the first arch becomes the palatoquadrate cartilage of the upper jaw
what arch becomes the lower jaw
ceratobranchial cartilage of the first arch became mandibular cartilage (mekels)
what was the purpose of the second arch in the formation of jaws
in mammals it became hyoid arches, in other vertebrates it holds the first arch in place
if an organism retains the rest of its arches, what does it use them for
uses them to keep the cavity open and allows for gills
sharks have a spiracle on their head, what is this remenant of
the second pharyngeal opening moving upward creating a non functioning spiracle
chondrictes have sleek fusiform bodies, what does this suggest for function
suggests that they are/were active swimmers
what helps to keep chondrictes afloat
heterocercal tail and large liver filled with bouyant oils
what kind of birthing do chondrictes have
some have live birth, some have eggs
what is the functional support of most chondrictes
cartilagenous vertebrae
how many pharyngeal arches are in verts
7
how many pharyngeal openings are in verts
8
what group do rays belong to
batoidea
when does the ray fossils begin
early jurassic
what is the function of a spiracle in rays
primary way rays bring water into the body
what is the difference between skates and rays
skates have a rostum, rays dont
what group do the rays belong to
rajidae
what kind of birthing do skates and rays have
vivapary (born live but in a “purse”
what makes the ratfish tail different from the other chondrictes
it is not heterocercal, it is pointed
how does the ratfish propel itself through water
large pectoral fins
when do ratfish appear in fossil record
late devonian
how do jaws of ratfish differ from sharks
upper jaw of ratfish fused to braincase
how do ratfish gills differ from sharks
ratfish have an operculum, sharks dont
how do ratfish breed
pelvic claspers and cephalic clasper (on head)
what groups are in the teleostomes
acanthodii, osteichthyes
what does the word acanthodii mean
spiny sharks
what kind of tail do acanthodii have
heterocercal
what is the characteristic feature of acanthodii
fins preceded by spines
when do acanthodii live
early silurian to late ordovician
what water types did acanthondii occupy
marine and freshwater
what was the major mechanical support for acanthodians
ossified vertebral column with persistant notochord
where did the acanthodii have dermal bone
has some dermal bone in the head but it was not composited into a head shield
what was the first group to have a bony operculum
acanthodii had some members with bony operculum
why are acanthodii probably more related to sharks than bony fishes
sharks and acanthodii both have subterminal mouth below the nose (bony fish dont have this)
what kind of mouth do bony fish have
terminal mouth
most living vertebrates are in what group
osteichthyes
what group do bony fishes belong to
osteichthyes
when do bony fishes appear
late silurian
what characterizes osteichthyes
majority of the internal skeleton is made of bone
what ostheicythes have a mostly cartilage skeleton
sturgeons, paddlefish, lungish,
what organ do bony fishes have to support bouyancy
lepidotrichia
what are lepidotrichia
slender bony rods or rays providing fan like internal support to the fins
what are the two groups in the bony fishes
actinopterygeans, sarcopterigians
what is the dominant group within the bony fishes
actinopterygeans
what group in the bony fishes gave rise to the tetrapods
sarcopterygeans
what does the word neopterygii mean
new fishes (older new fish)
what kind of tail is found in the neopterygii
homocercal tail
what does the world teleostean mean
newer new fishes
what fish are within the teleostean
most fish
what is a major difference in the fins of neopterygian and teleostean fishes
neo have pelvic fins pushed way back, teleo have pelvic fins pushed under the pectoral fins
what are the two kinds of swim bladders
physo and physcli
what is the primitive swim bladder
physo
what is the advanced swim bladder
physcli
what happens in physo swim bladder
swim bladder is connected to the stomach
what happens in physcli swim bladder
swim bladder not connected to stomach, own gas gland that uses dissolved gasses to fill the bladder
what kind of tails do sarcopterygii have
diphycercal tails
what groups are within the sarcopterygii
dipnoi (lungfish), coelocanth, rhipidistia
what genus does coealocanths belong to
latimeria
what does the word actinopterygii mean
ray finned fishes
what are the palaenoisciformes of the actinopterygii
primitive ray finned fishes
what kind of scales do bichir have
rhomboidal ganoid scales
when did neopterygeans arise
early mesozoic
when did teleost fishes appear
late triassic
where did tetrapod limbs evolve from
sarcopterygean fins
sarcopterygians have choanae, what are choanea
extrernal nares open into the mouth through holes called choanea
what kind of scales so sarcopterygians have
cosmoid scales
when did coelocanths first appear
middle devonian
what is weird about the coelocanth swim bladder
its filled with fat
when did dipnoi first arise
(lungfish) first arose in devonian
when do rhipidistians date to
early devonian to permian
early devonian to permian
yes
what kind of teeth are found in the rhipidistians
labrynthodont teeth
why are rhipidisteans so important
theyre the direct ancestors to tetrapods
when did tetrapods step onto land
late paleozoic
what is tetrapoda formally characterized by
presence of a chiridium
what is a chiridium
muscular limb with joints and digits
what were the labrynthodonts
transition animals between rhipidisteans and tetrapods (ancient amphibians)
what is the best studied rhipidistean
eusthenopteron
the cleithrum of fishes turns into what on humans
turns into the spine of the scapula
acanthostega was an ancient amphibian with how many phalanges
8
what did tiktaalik look like
amphibian skull, fish body
whats the order of transition species (oldest to newest)
acanthostega, tiktaalik, ichthyostega, limnoscelis, labryinthodonts
what did ichthyostega look like
had a forelimb and a hing limb (7 digits)
how many digits did limnoscelis have
5
what is an eft
midpoint in the life cycle of newts where they are red and terrestrial
what subclass are the modern amphibians within
lissamphibia
what kind of organisms are in the caudata
those with a tail
what kind of organisms are in the salientia
those without a tail
what kind of organisms are in the apoda
those without feet
what does paedomorphic mean
adult retining a juvenile feature
what kinds of glands are in the skin of amphibians
mucous and poison glands
amphibians can have physiologically active cromatophores, what do these do
produce colour
amphibians have a urostyle, what is a urostyle
fusion of the vertebrae
how many chambers are in an amphibian heart
3
when is there a lateral line on amphibians
only in juvenile stages, lost in adulthood
when did stapes first appear
in early labrynthodonts
what kind of fertilization was most likely in labrynthodonts
external with eggs laid in water
what kind of water was most common for labrynthodonts to frequent
freshwater
when did lissamphibia arise
jurassic
what is a lateral line organ
gives feedback on how water is moving (kinda like an inner ear)
what is prismatic cartilage
calcium phosphate shell surrounding cartilage
what kind of scales do sharks have
placoid scales
whats another term for poison glands in amphibians
granular skin glands
living amphibians have what kind of teeth
pedicellate
what is the only lissamphibian to have internal fertilization
caecilians
what are the two major amniote groups
sauropsida and synapsida
what is within the sauopsids
birds, dinosaurs, reptiles
how are saurapsid and synapsid skulls classified
based on the temporal bone of the skull
what are the skull types
anapsid, diapsid, synapsid
what differentiates suarapsids and synapsids from amphibians
sacrum attaches the hind limbs to the spinal chord
what is the sacrum
fusion of 5 vertebrae
what are the 5 key characteristics of amniotes
sacral vertebrae, cornified epidermal scales, advanced kidney, deeper skull, cleidoic egg
what are cornified epidermal scales
lizard scales, bird leg scales (not the same thing as fish scales)
what kind of advanced kidney is characteristic of vertebrates
metanepharous kidney
why is a metanepharoud kidney needed for advanced vertebrates
organism needs to be stingy with water and produce very concentrated urine
what are the 4 extra embryonic membranes of the cleoidic egg
amnion, yolk sac, alantois, choreon
what are the stem amniotes
cotylosaurs
what is the mnenomic device for the 12 cranial nerves
oh oh oh to touch and feel a girls vagina ah heaven
what are the 12 cranial nerves
olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abduceans, facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal
what are the three branches of the trigeminal nerve
ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular
where are the trochlear nerves found
superior oblique muscles
where is the absuceans nerve found
lateral rectus
where is the glossopharyngeal nerve found
tongue and pharynx
where is the accessory nerve found
skeletal muscle
where is the hypoglassal nerve found
below the tongue
what is the outermost layer of an amniote
choreon
what is the eurypsid skull derived from
has one temporal fostra, derived from diapsid
what is an organism with a diapsid skull
tuatara, lizards, birds
what is an animal with an anapsid skull
turtles
what is an animal with a synapsid skull
mammals
what are the two types of jaw joints (articulations)
quadrate-artricular and temporal-mandibular
what is endothermy
physiological adaptation where animal maintains internal temperature
what animals are endotherms
birds and mammals
why dont more organisms use endothermy
its calorifically expensive
what is the major benefit of endothermy
allows independence in climates regardless of temperature or time of day
what is a synapsid skull
single pair temporal openings
what is a diapsid skull
two pairs of temporal openings
what kinds of skulls did dinosaurs have
diapsid skulls
what is the most likley sister group to the amniotes
diadectomorphs
when did diadectomorphs evolve
in late carboniferous with the lissamphibia
what does cotylosaur mean
stem reptiles
mesosaurs belong to what group
sauropsids
whatis the earliest evidence for continental drift
mesosaurs only found in south american and africa
to what group do reptilia belong
saurapsids
what is found in the parareptilia
turtles, and fossils
what is found in lepidosaurs
fossils, snakes, smae lizards
what is in archosaurmorpha
dinosaurs and birds
what arose from eureptilia
lepidosaurs, archosaurs, and ichthyterygia
what are the squamates
snakes, lizards
what do archosaurs lead to the first appearance of
bipedalism
what is an advantage to having a diapsid skull
elongation of trigeminal nerves allowing for a stronger bite
what kind og jaw joint do lizards have
articular-quadrate
what is the amniote columella synomenous with in reptiles
stapes
what animals have anapsid skulls
mesosaurs, cotylosaurs, turtles
what cranial nerve drives mastication
trigeminal nerve
what are amphibaenians
legless lizards
what does fossorial mean
lives underground (legless lizards do this)
what does pneumatized mean
hollow
what kinds of bones do birds have
pneumatized
what vertebrates lack teeth entirely
birds and turtles
birds have a pygostyle, what is a pygostyle
fusion of caudal vertebrae
birds have a synsacrum, what is synsacrum
sacrum is fused to the ribs and thoracic vertebrae in a cage like structure
what kind of sternum do birds have
keeled sternum
what is a keeled sternum
sternum with a plate sticking out, attaches pectoral muscles to humerous to aid in flying
are feathers diagnostic of birds
no, because they were found in dinosaurs as well
what is considered the first bird
archaeopteryx
what do birds outnumber
all vertebrates except for fish
what verts can fly
birds, bats, pterosaurs
what are the three major groups of the synapsids
pelycosaurs, therapsids, mammals
what is a synapsid
amniote with one temporal fenestrae
when did amniotes transition from ectotherm to endotherm
within the synapsids
what did therapsids evolve from
pelycosaurs
how many digits did therapsids have
5, and they were quadripeds
when did mammals first arise
late triassic
what did the first mammals look like
small and shrew like
what kind of dentition do mammals have
heterodont dentition
what is a mammal
endothermic furry animal nourished from birth by milk
what is pelage
mammal coat of hair
what is the proper name for whiskers
sensory vibrissae
how many ear bones do mammals have
3
what are mammals (evolutionarily)
late triassic therapsids
what does heterodont mean
more than one kind of tooth (incisors, molars)
what are the most ancient types of mammals
monotremes
what is found in monotremes
platypus, echidna
what distinguishes eutherian mammals from monotremous mammals
all eutherians have placentas
what is the surface of skin
epidermis
what is the middle of the skin
basal membrane
what is the bottom layer of skin
dermis
what does the dermis devlop from
mesoderm and mesenchyme
what is epidermis derived from
ectoderm
what is the superficial fascia (hypodermis)
between skin and muscle
how much body weight does skin make up
about 15 percent
what does the epidermis produce
hair, feathers, claws, nails, horns, beaks, (some) scales
what are the three layers of epidermis
periderm, stratum basale, basal lamina
what makes up integument
epidermis and dermis separated by basal membrane
dermis is composed of fibrous connective tissue made up of mostly
collagen
what is a ply
a woven layer of collagen fibers
what produces moisture of skin
epidermis makes mucous to moisten skin
how to land vertebrates keep epidermis moist
by encasing epidermis in keratin or cornifications
what is the cornified or keratin layer of epidermis in land verts called
stratum corneum
how does stratum corneum help prevent water loss
its a layer of keratinized or cornified dead cells. because theyre nonliving they help waterproof
what does alpha keratin do
kills and flattens cells for waterproofing
where is alpha keratin abundant
hair and nails
what does beta keratin do
forms epidermal scales
where is beta keratin found
lizard skin and bird feathers
what other kinds of cells are found in skin
keratinocytes, langerhorn cells, merkel cells and melanocytes
what do keratinocytes do
phagocytize cells
what do melanocytes do
make themselves darker to protect from sun
what do langerhans cells do
immune system cells in the skin
what do merkel cells do
caps that sit on neurons that penetrate into epidermis
mobile tongue first develops in ____
tetrapods
what does tongue attach to
hyoid apparatus
what are taste buds
sensory organs responsive to chemicals entering mouth
what does the vomeronasal organ detect
smells pharamones
what are pharamones
social chemicals of communication (often used in mating)
what is the function of filiform papillae on tongue
help to rasp flesh from bones
what is lingual feeding
shooting out tongue to stick to prey and eat it
what is intraoral transport
moving food from tongue to buccal cavity
what are the two major controlsystems in the body
nervous and endocrine
what are the endocrine glands function
produce hormones (chemical messengers)
how are hormones carried
through blood
where is hair found
thin skin
what is major differences between thin and thick skin
thin skin has thinner epidermis, thin dermis is looser, thin has hair.
what are the glands of the dermis
subaceous gland, ‘apocrine’ sweat gland, ecrine sweat gland
what does the subaceous gland do
secretes sebum
what is the function of sebum
as hair grows its coated with sebum (holocrine secretion)
what is the function of the ecrine sweat gland
coiled gland that secretes sweat via merocrine secretion
how does sweat cool the body
evaporation of sweat from the body cools it
what is the function of the ‘apocrine sweat gland’
secretes sweat onto hair in pubic region and armpits (merocrine functions)
what is a key difference between ecrine and apocrine sweat glands
apocrine preserves fragrance of the hairs
what are two other glands that can, but not always, be found in the dermis
ceruminous gland, scent glands
what is the function of ceruminous glands
wax glands of the ears
what is the function of the arrector pilus found in the dermis
smooth muscle that pulls on hairs allowing them to stand up
what are some other things that can be found in the thin skin
adipose, blood vessels, nerve endings
what are two types of nerves that can be found in the skin
free nerves, and encapsulated nerves
what is a free nerve
not encapsulated
what are some examples of free nerves
noseceptors, temperature receptors
what is a noseceptor
pain receptor (detects something that may damage the tissue)
what is a temperature receptor
measure change in temperature
what are the kinds of encapsulated nerves in skin
merkel disks, meissners corpuscle, pacinian corpuscle
what kind of receptors have merkel disks on the encapsulated nerve
touch receptors that are pressure activated
what kind of receptors have meissners corpuscle
touch receptors that are sensitive to light touch (many in fingertips, few in back)
what kind of receptors have pacinian corpuscle
touch receptors for deep touch with deep pressure on the skin
the quil of a feather is located where in avian integument
buried on epidermis
do feathers have vasculature
nope
the inner hollow portion of a feather has two parts, what are they, and what is the difference between the two
quil and rachis. quil is in epidermis, structurally rachis is the same but its not in the epidermis
what is the vane of a feather
the mass of fluff coming off the rachis
what is an individual fluff of the vane of a feather called
a barb
what is another name for a quill
calamus
what branches off of barbs
barbules
what are the 4 types of feathers
flight, down, filoplume, contour
what is the function of down feathers and where are they found
they are for warmth and found beneath contour feathers
what is avian integument characterized by
feathers, epidermal scales, preen gland
what is the only integument gland birds have
preen
what is the function of the preen gland
makes oil to coat feathers
when do reptiles show an outer and inner integument
when molting
reptiles have double layered scales, what are the two layers made of
outer is beta keratin, inner is alpha keratin
what is found between the two layers of reptile integument
mesos layer for waterproofing
what glands of reptiles have in their integument
they are largely glandless in integument
what animal has the same integument as the lissamphibia
reptiles
amphibians have a lightly cornified stratum cornum, what does this do for the animal
leaves integument light, soft, and smooth
what kinds of glands of amphibians have in their integument
mucous glands and poison glands
instead of scales what does frog integument have
chromatophores
how thick is fish epidermis generally
can be as thin as one or two cells thick
where are fish scales located
in the dermis (they are dermal bone)
what glands are found in fish epidermis
unicellular mucous glands
what does it mean that fish scales are imbrocated
the top of one covers the bottom of the next / / /
what are the colour bearing cells in fish integument
chromatophores
why can chromatophores be used to communicate in fishes
they are innervated so they can change colour/pattern
how many pigments can one fish chromatophore bear
only one per chromatophore cell
what does afferent mean in nervous system
approaching nervous system
what does efferent mean in nervous system
moving away from the nervous system
the anatomical division of the nervous system is divided into the ___ and the ___
central and peripheral
what is included in the central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
what is included in the peripheral nervous system
nodules(ganglia) and nerves
what is spina bifida caused by
failure of neural tube closing in first trimester
what is the central nervous system derived from
embryonic neural tube
what is the peripheral nervous system derived from embryonically
neural crest cells
what animals have neural crest cells
vertebrates only
what do neural crest cells produce
melanocytes(/chromatophores), mesenchyme, ganglia
what is a ganglia
a cluster of neurons
what is a neuron
functional cells of nervous system that are excitabe and communicatable
what are the three neuron types
motor (efferent), intermediate, sensory (afferent)
what are the two types of cells in the nervous system
neurons and neuroglial cells
what are some types of neuroglia cells
microglia, oligodendroglia, schwann cells, ependymal cells, astrocytes
what is the main difference between neurons and neuroglia
neurons recieve signal, neuroglia do not
what are the three types of neurons
unipolar, bipolar, multipolar
what are the two kinds of nerves
myelinated and unmyelinated
a neuroglial cells that produces myelination in pns is called what
schwann cell
a neuroglial cell that produces myelination in cna is called what
oligodendrocyte
what are nodes of ranvier
indentations between adjacent neurological cells in myelin sheath
how does information travel in nervous system
electrical and chemical signals
what are electrical signals in nervous system called
nerve impulses
what are chemical signals in nervous system called
graded potentials and acction potentials
what is a graded potential
declines in magnitude as it travels along a nerve
what is an action potential along a nerve fiber
all or nothing, propegates without decrement along nerve fiber
where are chemical signals generated
at synapses
what is a synapse
meeting point between two neurons
describe how signal tranvels from one neuron to the next
signal travels down axon of one neuron then hits a synapse to next neuron the burst of energy at the synapse triggers release of neurotransmitters in next neuron, once enough neurotransmitters accumulate, a signal is sent through the neuron and down axon to the next synapse
what are the somatic sensory afferent pathways
meisners corpuscles bring infomation from outside world (exoceptions)
what are visceral sensory afferent pathways
whats goin on inside the body-ph, bp, o2 (interoception)
what are the somatic motor efferent pathways
stimulate voluntary muscles
what are the visceral motor efferent pathways
stimulates internal involuntary-adjust bp, ph, o2
what is another name for the visceral motor efferent pathways (PNS to CNS)
autonomic nervous system
what are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system
sympathetic, parasympathetic
what does the sympathetic division of the autonomic system do
fight or flee, targets adrenal gland, targets pupils
what does the parasympathetic division of the autonomic system do
counteracts sympathetic division
what is the function of sensory structures
signal transduction
what is signal transduction
converting a stimulus into action potential by passing signal and changing its form
what signals can we transduce
mechanical, chemical, electromagnetic
what is action potential
change in electrical potential that occurs between the inside and the outside of a nerve or muscle fiber when stimulated serving the transmit signal
what do peripheral nerves do
serve either visceral or somatic tissues and carry sensory motor information
what are the two nerve types from PNS
spinal or cranial nerves
what is the first cranial nerve
olfactory (smell)
what is the second cranial nerve
optic nerve (vision)
what is the third cranial nerve
oculomotor nerve (superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique muscles)
what is the fourth cranial nerve
trochlear nerve (superior oblique eye muscles)
what is the fifth cranial nerve
trigeminal (ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular branches)
what is the sixth cranial nerve
abducens (control movement of eye (lateral rectus))
what is the seventh cranial never
facial nerve (sensory fibers from taste buds, muscles to face too)
what is the eighth cranial nerve
auditory (hearing)
what is the ninth cranial nevere
glossopharyngeal (to third branchial arch)
what is the tenth cranial nerve
vagus nerve (mouth, pharynx, and most viscera)
what is the 11th cranial nerve
accessory nerve (gives to some spinal muscles)
what is the 12th cranial nevere
hypoglossal (innervates hyoid and tongue)
what are memories in brain
neurotransmitters
where are action potentials generated
pacinian corpuscle
what are the three basic principles of sensory systems
all or nothing, frequency modulation, sensory adaptation
what is the all or nothing principle
action potential happens or it doesnt, not a small or large action potential
where does frequency modulation occur
pacinian corpuscle
what is frequency modulation
the amount of action potentials per minute codes for how much stimulation is occurring
what is sensory adaptation
reaction to a stimulus depending on how much previously prsent (ex. lights brighter when youve been asleep, actual brightness of light doesnt change)
what is a nociceptor
pain receptor
what are chemoreceptors
tasting and smelling receptors (take in chemical signals)
what is a baroreceptor
detects pressure changes
what is a carotid body
a cluster of chemoreceptors
what are simple mechanoreceptors
noceceptors, pacinian corposcles
what are complex mechanoreceptors
lateral line organs, inner ear
what animals have lateral line organ
fish, and larval amphibians
what nerve goes to the fish lateral line organ
vagus nerve (10)
what nerve goes to the inner ear in verts
8th cranial nerve (auditory)
what are the sensory receptors of the lateral line organ
neuromasts
what does the neuromast respond to
responds to water currents
how are hair cells of the neuromast oriented
with most sensitive axis parallel to lateral line canal
what is the primary role of the later line organ
navigation
what arises from the lateral line organ
vestibular apparatus
the vestibular apparatus is filled with ____ and surrounded by____
filled with endolymph and surrounded by perilymph
what is a neuromast composed of
hair cells, supporting cells, sensory nerve fibers
what is the long colium of a hair cell called
kinocilium
what are the shorter cilia of a hair cell called
stereocilia
what are masses of hair cells (neuromast) covered by
cupula (protective bubble)
how many semicircular canals do gnathostomes have
3
what are sensory receptors in semicircular canals called
cristae
where specifically in the semicircular canals are cristae found
ampullae at the base of each semicircular canal
what do semicircular canals respond to
rotation and acceleration
how is a change in acceleration or rotation detected
endolymph movement lags behind movement of canal itself, fluid deflects cupula, stimulates hair cells, and alters rhythmic discharge of electrical impulses to nervous system
what is the sensory receptor in the saculus of the semicircular canal
otolith receptor
how do otolith receptors respond to orientation
the otolith moves and can detect which way is up
what is the lagena
secondary appendage of saccule
what is the inner ear encased by
temporal bone
what is a macule
neuromast
what is the pars inferior used for
sound detection (primarily the lagena)
what is between the membranous labrynth of inner ear and the temporal bone
perilymph
how many semicircular canals do hagfish, ostracoderm and lamprey have
hagfish have one, lamprey and ostracoderms have 2
what is sound
pressure waves in the air
what is sound measured in
hertz (ripples in air per second)
how do you get action potential from sound waves
sound wave is transduced to action potential and sent rhough 8th cranial nerve to brain
which verts have lagena
fish
what is the terrestrial equivaent to lagena
columella
what is the organ of corti
sensory receptor of sound found in the lagena or in the cochlea
what animals have an external ear (pinna)
reptiles, birds, mammals
what is the function of the pinna
differentiate sounds from different directions
what are the parts of the middle ear
tympanum, meatus, ear ossicles (1-3)
what is the tympanum
ear drum
what are the three inner ear bones of mammals
stapes, incus, malleus
what are the three fluid filled channels in the cochlea
scala vestibuli, scala tympani, scala media
where is reissners membrane located
between scala vestibuli and scala media
where do sounds enter the inner ear through
oval window
what directs pressure waves to the ossicle of the ear
auricles
what separates the external and internal ear
tympanic membrane (eardrum)
what is the function of the stapes in the inner ear
vibrates with sound making waves of perilymph in the vestibule
what is the function of the round window
disipates sound
what does the organ of corti run the length of
the basilar membrane
what is another name for pinna
auricle
the malleus of human ears comes from what in reptiles
malleus comes from articular bone of reptilian jaws
what is found at the end of the stapes
footplate
what is the cochlear duct (scala media) filled with
endolymph
what frequency of sound is interpeted first in the beginning of the cochlea
high pitch heard first, low pitch heard last
hair cells in mammal ears are covered by what
gelatinous tectorial membrane
what is tectorial membrane of hair cells synonemous with in other verts
columella
how do we hear pitches
based on where the sound hits in the scala vestibuli. squeezes the cochlear duct where maximum deflection of those hair cells
when losing hearing, what pitch do we lose first
high pitch lost first
what do hearing aids do
amplify volume and keep the same pitch
what do rods in eyes sense
low light sensors
what do cones in eyes sense
colour sensors
what is visual accomidation
capacity to focus on objects at different distances
different wavelengths are interpreted as (by eye)
different wavelengths are interpreted as different colours
what are the three layers to the mammal eye
sclera, choroid, retina
what is sclera
the white of the eye
the sclera clears at the front of the eye to become the ____
cornea
what is the proper name for eye goo
vitreous humour
what is the basic travel of light through the eye
light through lens, then vitreous humour, into white sensory retina, into pigmented black retina
what if a difference between a light and a dark adapter eye
dark adapted eye has reflective pigmented retina
what polarity are motor neurons
multipolar
what polarity are sensory neurons
unipolar
what kind of neurons are found in the retina
bipolar neurons
what cells allow for sharpness in eyes
amocrine cells
if an eye only has rods, what can it see
cant see colour
where is light transduced
in the disks of the rods/cones
what is the transduction path of light
hits the back of the eye at the disk of the rod/cone, travels along rod/cone then synapses with a bipolar neuron, then synapses with a ganglion cell, then travels to 2nd cranial nerve
what makes the first synapse of seeing inactive in the dark
in dark glutamate is hitting the synapse making it inactive, light stops glutamate from hitting synapse
what are the two photoreceptors in eyes
rods and cones
what is the pigment in the pigmented retina
melanin
what ion is vital in vision
sodium and potassium
bipolar cells have spontaneous
depolarization
why are rods and cones leaky
so glutamate can be released if in dark conditions
what is glutamate
an inhibitory neurotransmitter
why is glutamate inactive with light
because photoreceptors are hyperpolarized and glutamate cant be released
the disks in photoreceptors have what pigment
rhodopsin
what happens to retinal to stop sodium channels from being leaky
the 11-cis retinal is changed to A11 trans retinal (isomeric change)
what kind of photoreceptors do not release glutamate
hyperpolarized
what are the tastes we can taste
salty, sweet, sour, bitter, savoury
what is olfaction
smelling
what are the three anatomical components to smell
olfactory epithelium, olfactory bulb, olfactory tract
what bone folds into the nasal cavity
turbinate bone (endothermy association)
how many olfactry receptors are there, and how many smells can they detect
40 million receptors that can detect up to 10,000 smells
why is smell biologically important to reproduction
women make mating choices based on smell
the 1st cranial nerve that is involved in olfaction travels through where
cribiform plate of the ethmoid bone
what exactly is a smell
particles dissolved in fluid in nasal epithelium that can be transduced to an action potential
what is gustation
taste
where are taste cells restricted to in mammals
tongue
what are tongue bumps
papillae
what is the difference between papillae and taste papillae
only taste papillae if they have receptors for taste
what is the general shape of a taste cell
barrell shaped
if a taste cell has microvilli then what happens to it
taste cells with microvilli are not chemoreceptors
what nerves conduct taste to the brain
7, 9, 10
where is the vomeronasal complex located
in the hard palate
what does the vomeronasal complex look like
looks very similar to nasal epithelium
what kind of neurons are used in the vomerine nasal organ
bipolar
where does smell taken with the vomeronasal organ go
accessory olfactory bulb
what is the main use of the vomeronasal organ
to sense pharamones
what is a pharamone
chemical messenger carried in air from other animals (involved in mating)
how do animals get particles into their vomeronasal organ
flehmen response (pushing particles into vomerine complex with tongue)
what is the life span of a taste bud cell
1 week
what is the actual chemoreceptor cell of taste in a taste bud
gustatory cells
what verts have infared
viper snakes
what organ does infared stuff
the pit organ
what is ir sensitive to
heat, can see heat
what cranial nerve is involved in ir
2nd
what kinds of verts use electrical fields
fish living in zero visability, and birds
how does an electrical field help to tell where a fish is
they generate a weak electrical field around theirself and can build an image of world around them based on signals they can generate
how do birds use electrical fields
earth has its geomagnetic field, birds can tap into this visually and use it for navigation
neurons are ____ pigs
glucose
what does a PET scan do
links positrons to glucode and image to see where those are in the brain (done to see rapid growth)
what is the cell body of a neuron called
soma
what are the branches of a neuron called
dendrites
what is the polarity of a neuron determined by
the position of the soma
what is the function of glial cells
surround neurons and hold them in place, supply oxygen and nutrients, insulate neurons, destroy pathogens, remove dead neurons
how can you tell a region has a lot of oligodendrocytes
its in the white matter of the brain
what is the function of astrocytes
(glial cell) structurally hold up neurons
how does long term memory work
dendrocytes make connections and astrocytes help to hold up the connection
what is the function of microglial cells
(glial cell) phagocytic and cleans up rubbish
what is the function of ependymal epitheliam cells
maintain cerebral spinal fluid
what are the three vertebrate kidney types
pronephros, mesonephros, metanephros
what animals have pronephros kidney
hagfish and some embryos
what animals have mesonephros kidneys
all fish and amphibians
what animals have metanephric kidney
reptiles, birds, mammals (anmiotes)
what are the 7 names for the kidney duct thing
pronephric duct, mesonephric duct, archinephric duct, wolfian duct, vas deferens, ductus deferens, mullerian duct
what does vestigial mean
non functional
the gonad rudiment makes what in females
ovaries
the gonad rudiment makes what in males
testis
females make a new duct to move eggs, what do they make
mullerian duct (lose their mesonephric duct)
why cant mammals use the mesonephric kidney
uses too much water for most terrestrial animals
how do males avoid developing mullerian ducts
they secrete mullerian inhubiting substance hormone
