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Vertebrate Anatomy > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what is osteogenesis

A

the formation of bone

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2
Q

what are the two types of osteogenesis

A

intramembranous

cartilage replacement

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3
Q

what is osteogenesis in the form of intramembranous bone formation

A

happens to flat bone of skull and clavicles, happens within fibrous connective membrane

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4
Q

what is osteogenesis in the form of cartilage replacement bone formation

A

happens in most skeletal elements, can be perichondral or endochondral

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5
Q

what is an ossification center

A

the site of bone formation

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6
Q

what engages osteogenesis

A

osteoblasts

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7
Q

what removes existing bone

A

osteoclasts

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8
Q

what maintains fully formed bone

A

osteocytes

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9
Q

in what kind of development is the first formative bone nonlamellar

A

endochondral and intramembranous

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10
Q

what is another name for nonlamellar bone

A

immature bone or woven bone

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11
Q

what is nonlamellar bone

A

lots of cells interspersed amongst irregularly strewn bundles of collagen

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12
Q

what is perichondral

A

on the outside

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13
Q

what is endochondral

A

on the innermost

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14
Q

what is lamellar bone

A

mature bone

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15
Q

what does osteogenesis start with

A

local aggregations of loosel arranged mesenchymal cells

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16
Q

in what kind of osteogenesis formation is cartilage an intermediate

A

endochondral

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17
Q

when someone stops growing what has happened

A

their epiphysial plates have closed

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18
Q

what are the three regions have a bone

A

epiphysis, metaphysis, diaphysis

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19
Q

what is another name for the metaphysis

A

epiphyseal plate

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20
Q

what is the first step of bone formation from endochronral

A

loose cellections of mesenchymal cells consense to form hyaline cartilage

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21
Q

what is the second step of bone formation in endochondral

A

bone collar forms in region of diaphysis

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22
Q

what deposits the bone collar

A

cells on inner surface of diaphysis become osteoblasts and deposit the collar

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23
Q

what is happening in the bone at the same time as the formation of the bone collar

A

inorganic calcium salts accumulate in the matrix to calcify cartilage in the core of the diaphysis

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24
Q

what is the function of calcium in bone formation

A

calcify cartilage, seal off chondrocytes

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25
Q

what is the function of sealing off chrondrocytes in bone formation

A

seal them off so they die so vasculature can invade

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26
Q

when is the primary center of ossification established

A

when osteoblasts appear in the core of the bone

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27
Q

what happens in the center of ossification

A

old bits of calcified cartilage bone become overlaid by new bone

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28
Q

what are trabeculae

A

transitional composites of new bone

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29
Q

when are trabeculae considered bone spiracles

A

when an ossified matrix predominates

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30
Q

what do osteoclasts signal in osteogenesis

A

signals active nature of bone remodeling through matrix deposition and removal

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31
Q

what is the difference between osteoblast and osteoclast

A

blast deposits, clast removes

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32
Q

where is the active area of cartilage growth, calcification, cartilage removal, and new bone deposition

A

epiphyseal plates

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33
Q

what do chondrocytes do in response to approaching ossification

A

chondrocytes proliferate and hypertrophy as surrounding matrix calcifies

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34
Q

what lengthens bone

A

proliferation of cartilage in the epiphyses

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35
Q

what contributes to an increase in bone girth

A

continued depositon of bone under diaphyseal periosteum

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36
Q

why can fish grow larger even if reached sexual maturity

A

only bird and mammals stop growing when they reach adult and sexual maturity

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37
Q

what is the basic steps of osteogenesis

A

cartilage calcifies, blood vessels invade epiphyses, osteoblasts appear, new bone deposited

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38
Q

when do secondary centers of ossification appear in humans

A

at 2-3 years of age

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39
Q

when does the zone of ossification take over cartilage proliferation

A

at or shortly after mammals reach sexual maturity

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40
Q

what are the 5 chordate characteristics that all vertebrates have

A

notochord, pharyngeal openings, post anal tail, endostyle, dorsal hollow nerve cord

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41
Q

what are the innovations of chordates that are characteristic to vertebrates

A

cranium and vertebrae

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42
Q

what are vertebrae

A

series of separate bones or cartilage blocks firmly joined together as a back bone that defines the major axis of the body

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43
Q

what are between vertebrae

A

intervertebral disks

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44
Q

what are the 3 basic parts to a vertebra

A

centrum, neural arch, hemal arch

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45
Q

what structural element did early vertebrates rely on

A

has vertebrae but still mainly relied on the notochord

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46
Q

where does the notochord remain in advanced vertebrates

A

in the nucleous pulpous in the intervertebral disks

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47
Q

what is the function of a cranium

A

supports sensory organs in the head and encases or partially encases the brain

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48
Q

what does cephalization mean

A

anterior clustering of specialized sensory organs

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49
Q

what are the three parts of the brain

A

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain

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50
Q

what two kinds of cells give rise to most sensory organs in the head and are the source of most adult structures that distinuish vertebrates from chordates

A

neural crest cells, epidermal placodes

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51
Q

in what habitat are the earliest vertebrates found

A

marine waters

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52
Q

what are the three stages of vertebrate evolution

A

prevertebrates, agnathans, gnathostomes

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53
Q

what is a prevertebrate

A

suspension feeding organism that probably resembled amphioxious without burrowing habits

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54
Q

how did agnathans feed

A

use of a muscular pump to produce food bearing water current

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55
Q

where did the prevertebrates arise from

A

arose within protochordates

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56
Q

what two mechanical changes caused the shift from prevertebrate to vertebrate

A

pharynx developed encircling band of muscles, strong and springy cartilage replaced collagen in pharyngeal bars (this formed the muscular pump)

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57
Q

what removed the limits to size in early vertebrates

A

the loss of cilliary pump and the dominance of muscular pump

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58
Q

what did the muscular pump of prevertebrates allow for

A

allowed for larger body size, more complex feeding, addition of gills instead of pharyngeal openings

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59
Q

what are gills

A

complex, folded respiratory organs on pharyngeal pouches whose folds contain blood capillary beds capable of gas exchange

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60
Q

what are the folds of gills called

A

lamellae

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61
Q

what did the addition of gills allow for in vertebrates

A

allowed for increased respiratory demands made by organism due to increased activity

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62
Q

how did early vertebrates arise to the agnathan stage

A

appearance of muscular pharyngeal pump

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63
Q

what are the 5 agnathan groups

A

conodonts, pteraspidomorphi, ostracoderms, myxini, pteromyzontida

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64
Q

what kind of feeding did early gnathostomes posses

A

raptiorial and suction feeding

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65
Q

what removed size restriction of prey for gnathistomes

A

addition of jaws

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66
Q

if youre not a fish youre a ____

A

tetrapod

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67
Q

what are amniotes

A

vertebrates that wrap their embryos in an amnion

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68
Q

who are the anamniotes

A

fishes and amphibians

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69
Q

what are jaws derived from

A

phyrengeal arches

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70
Q

were ostracoderms vertebrates

A

no, notochord instead of vertebrae

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71
Q

ostracoderms were not considered craniates, why

A

they had a dermal bone head shield but not a chondral cranium

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72
Q

what do odontoblasts do

A

form dentin and enamel (mesenchymal derivatives)

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73
Q

how does dermal bone vary most significantly from other bone types

A

dermal bone has an enamel surface

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74
Q

what is the issue with having bone made of enamel and dentin

A

no blood vessels so its not reparable

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75
Q

what are the extant agnathans

A

hagfish and lampreys (myxini and pteryomyzontida)

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76
Q

what kind of larvae do lampreys have

A

ammocoete (kind of like amphioxious)

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77
Q

what kind of teeth do lampreys have

A

keratinized teeth (like finger nails)

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78
Q

lampreys and hagfish do not have arcualia when embryonic, what are arcualia

A

theyre embryonic structures that form vertebrae

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79
Q

whats the ecological difference between hagfish and lampreys

A

lampreys are ectoparasites

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80
Q

what kind of feeding do hagfish have

A

carrion feeding

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81
Q

what is carrion feeding

A

eat dead stuff

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82
Q

how many semicircular canals do lampreys have

A

2

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83
Q

how many semicircular canals do hagfish have

A

1

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84
Q

hagfish are unique in that they are isoosmotic, what is isoosmotic

A

organisms cells are in balance with the salt of the ocean

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85
Q

what organism displays knotting feeding when feeding

A

hagfish

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86
Q

what are the cyclostomes

A

hagfish and lamprey because they have circular mouths

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87
Q

where does the fossil data for hagfish and lampreys reach to

A

late devonian

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88
Q

all agnathans lack ____ and possess____

A

lack bone and possess a single nostril

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89
Q

what is the function of hagfish knotting

A

provides force to tear off food from a larger body

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90
Q

hagfish are hermaphrodites but they are not practicing hermaphrodites, what does this mean

A

they have both sets of gonads but only use one set, must have another hagfish present to reproduce

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91
Q

what kind of agnathan has vertebrae

A

some hagfish have embryonic vertebrae

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92
Q

what does it mean for water movement in the body of the hagfish that it is isoosmotic

A

no net flow o water in or out of the body (doesnt have to drink or pee)

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93
Q

what was most likely the direct ancestor to hagfish

A

invertebrates

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94
Q

how does a lamprey stay in place in moving water

A

grasps rock in mouth and holds it

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95
Q

what kind of feeding does the lamprey larva show

A

suspension feeding

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96
Q

what kind of fins do lamprey have

A

medial fins (paired fins and limbs absent)

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97
Q

when do the earliest vertebrates come from

A

early cambrian of China

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98
Q

what does the word conodont mean

A

cone teeth

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99
Q

what kind of feeding did conodonts have

A

selected and fed on larger food particles (prey)

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100
Q

when were ostracoderms most dominant

A

very late cambrian, silurian, early devonian

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101
Q

what was the first agnathan group to possess paired appendages

A

ostracoderms

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102
Q

what was the first vertebrate to have an intricate lateral line system

A

ostracoderms

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103
Q

what was the first vertebrate to have bone

A

ostracoderms

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104
Q

how large were most ostracoderms

A

minnow sized

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105
Q

what was the ostracoderm head shield

A

large bony plates of the head that were fused into a shield

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106
Q

what is the endoskeleton of ostracoderms made of

A

most fossils suggest cartilagenous endoskeletons

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107
Q

what is of interest in the fins of ostracoderms

A

paired muscular fins observed in the same position and vasculature as gnathostomes

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108
Q

what kind of falttening did ostracoderms have

A

dorsoventral

109
Q

what are the three ostracoderm clades

A

pteraspidomorphs, osteostracans, anapsids

110
Q

when do pteraspidomorphi ostracoderms appear

A

ordovician to late devonian

111
Q

how many semicircular canals do pteraspidomorphi of the ostracoderms have

A

possess 2 semicircular canals

112
Q

how many nares did pteraspidomorphi ostracoderms have

A

2

113
Q

what did pteraspidomorphi never have and what did they sometimes have

A

sometimes had lateral and dorsal spines, and never has paired fins

114
Q

ostracoderms body shapes were either fusiform or flattened, what does fusiform mean

A

spindle shaped

115
Q

what was a popular tail morphology within the ostracoderms

A

hypocercal tail (bottom lobe longer than upper lobe)

116
Q

what does the tail morphology of ostracoderms suggest

A

suggests ostracoderms did more open water swimming

117
Q

what are the two early groups of jawed fishes

A

placoderms and acanthodii

118
Q

when did acanthodii first appear

A

early sillurian

119
Q

when did placoderms first appear

A

early sillurian

120
Q

what was the early function of jaws

A

grasp, bite, crush prey (allowed for capturing of larger prey)

121
Q

early gnathostomes has two types of paired fins, what were these fin types

A

pectoral and pelvic fins

122
Q

where were the pectoral fins located on early gnathostomes

A

anterior

123
Q

where were the pelvic fins located on early gnathostomes

A

posteriorly

124
Q

what did paired fins allow for

A

stability and control

125
Q

gnathostomes produced two major extant vertebrate groups, what are these two groups

A

chondrictes, teleostomi

126
Q

what is within the chondrictes

A

sharks, skates, rays

127
Q

what is within the teleostomi

A

bony fishes

128
Q

when do placoderms date from

A

early silurian, flourished in devonian, gone in early carboniferous

129
Q

what is different about the bone in ostracoderms versus placoderms

A

placoderms dont have dentin in their dermal bone

130
Q

what distinguishes placoderms as a clade

A

bony thorax articulated with a bony head shield

131
Q

what was the first fish to have internal bone

A

placoderms had the first internal bone (neural and hemal arches were ossified)

132
Q

what was the size range for placoderms

A

hand sized to 30 feet long

133
Q

what was probably the lifestyle of placoderms

A

benthic bottom feeders marine and freshwater

134
Q

what are pelvic claspers

A

pelvic fins associated with internal fertilization (essentially penises)

135
Q

placoderms were vivaparous, what does vivaparous mean

A

internal fertilization and give birth to live young

136
Q

what group has the distinction of being the only major group of vertebrates to become entirely extinct without descendents

A

placoderms

137
Q

what are within the elasmobranchs

A

(of chondrictes) its the sharks and the rays

138
Q

what is within the holocephalans of chondrictes

A

chimearas (ratfish)

139
Q

what is notable about the teeth of members in chondrictes

A

the teeth have serial replacement

140
Q

what kind of scales do chondrictes have

A

placoid

141
Q

when did chondrictes arise

A

early devonian

142
Q

what kind of tail did placoderms have

A

heterocercal

143
Q

why is it important to note the tail type of placoderms

A

heterocercal tail meant probably didnt have a swim bladder

144
Q

what arch becomes the upper jaw

A

epibranchial cartilage of the first arch becomes the palatoquadrate cartilage of the upper jaw

145
Q

what arch becomes the lower jaw

A

ceratobranchial cartilage of the first arch became mandibular cartilage (mekels)

146
Q

what was the purpose of the second arch in the formation of jaws

A

in mammals it became hyoid arches, in other vertebrates it holds the first arch in place

147
Q

if an organism retains the rest of its arches, what does it use them for

A

uses them to keep the cavity open and allows for gills

148
Q

sharks have a spiracle on their head, what is this remenant of

A

the second pharyngeal opening moving upward creating a non functioning spiracle

149
Q

chondrictes have sleek fusiform bodies, what does this suggest for function

A

suggests that they are/were active swimmers

150
Q

what helps to keep chondrictes afloat

A

heterocercal tail and large liver filled with bouyant oils

151
Q

what kind of birthing do chondrictes have

A

some have live birth, some have eggs

152
Q

what is the functional support of most chondrictes

A

cartilagenous vertebrae

153
Q

how many pharyngeal arches are in verts

A

7

154
Q

how many pharyngeal openings are in verts

A

8

155
Q

what group do rays belong to

A

batoidea

156
Q

when does the ray fossils begin

A

early jurassic

157
Q

what is the function of a spiracle in rays

A

primary way rays bring water into the body

158
Q

what is the difference between skates and rays

A

skates have a rostum, rays dont

159
Q

what group do the rays belong to

A

rajidae

160
Q

what kind of birthing do skates and rays have

A

vivapary (born live but in a “purse”

161
Q

what makes the ratfish tail different from the other chondrictes

A

it is not heterocercal, it is pointed

162
Q

how does the ratfish propel itself through water

A

large pectoral fins

163
Q

when do ratfish appear in fossil record

A

late devonian

164
Q

how do jaws of ratfish differ from sharks

A

upper jaw of ratfish fused to braincase

165
Q

how do ratfish gills differ from sharks

A

ratfish have an operculum, sharks dont

166
Q

how do ratfish breed

A

pelvic claspers and cephalic clasper (on head)

167
Q

what groups are in the teleostomes

A

acanthodii, osteichthyes

168
Q

what does the word acanthodii mean

A

spiny sharks

169
Q

what kind of tail do acanthodii have

A

heterocercal

170
Q

what is the characteristic feature of acanthodii

A

fins preceded by spines

171
Q

when do acanthodii live

A

early silurian to late ordovician

172
Q

what water types did acanthondii occupy

A

marine and freshwater

173
Q

what was the major mechanical support for acanthodians

A

ossified vertebral column with persistant notochord

174
Q

where did the acanthodii have dermal bone

A

has some dermal bone in the head but it was not composited into a head shield

175
Q

what was the first group to have a bony operculum

A

acanthodii had some members with bony operculum

176
Q

why are acanthodii probably more related to sharks than bony fishes

A

sharks and acanthodii both have subterminal mouth below the nose (bony fish dont have this)

177
Q

what kind of mouth do bony fish have

A

terminal mouth

178
Q

most living vertebrates are in what group

A

osteichthyes

179
Q

what group do bony fishes belong to

A

osteichthyes

180
Q

when do bony fishes appear

A

late silurian

181
Q

what characterizes osteichthyes

A

majority of the internal skeleton is made of bone

182
Q

what ostheicythes have a mostly cartilage skeleton

A

sturgeons, paddlefish, lungish,

183
Q

what organ do bony fishes have to support bouyancy

A

swim bladders

184
Q

fins of the bony fishes are strengthened by what

A

lepidotrichia

185
Q

what are lepidotrichia

A

slender bony rods or rays providing fan like internal support to the fins

186
Q

what are the two groups in the bony fishes

A

actinopterygeans, sarcopterigians

187
Q

what is the dominant group within the bony fishes

A

actinopterygeans

188
Q

what group in the bony fishes gave rise to the tetrapods

A

sarcopterygeans

189
Q

what does the word neopterygii mean

A

new fishes (older new fish)

190
Q

what kind of tail is found in the neopterygii

A

homocercal tail

191
Q

what does the world teleostean mean

A

newer new fishes

192
Q

what fish are within the teleostean

A

most fish

193
Q

what is a major difference in the fins of neopterygian and teleostean fishes

A

neo have pelvic fins pushed way back, teleo have pelvic fins pushed under the pectoral fins

194
Q

what are the two kinds of swim bladders

A

physo and physcli

195
Q

what is the primitive swim bladder

A

physo

196
Q

what is the advanced swim bladder

A

physcli

197
Q

what happens in physo swim bladder

A

swim bladder is connected to the stomach

198
Q

what happens in physcli swim bladder

A

swim bladder not connected to stomach, own gas gland that uses dissolved gasses to fill the bladder

199
Q

what kind of tails do sarcopterygii have

A

diphycercal tails

200
Q

what groups are within the sarcopterygii

A

dipnoi (lungfish), coelocanth, rhipidistia

201
Q

what genus does coealocanths belong to

A

latimeria

202
Q

what does the word actinopterygii mean

A

ray finned fishes

203
Q

what are the palaenoisciformes of the actinopterygii

A

primitive ray finned fishes

204
Q

what kind of scales do bichir have

A

rhomboidal ganoid scales

205
Q

when did neopterygeans arise

A

early mesozoic

206
Q

when did teleost fishes appear

A

late triassic

207
Q

where did tetrapod limbs evolve from

A

sarcopterygean fins

208
Q

sarcopterygians have choanae, what are choanea

A

extrernal nares open into the mouth through holes called choanea

209
Q

what kind of scales so sarcopterygians have

A

cosmoid scales

210
Q

when did coelocanths first appear

A

middle devonian

211
Q

what is weird about the coelocanth swim bladder

A

its filled with fat

212
Q

when did dipnoi first arise

A

(lungfish) first arose in devonian

213
Q

when do rhipidistians date to

A

early devonian to permian

214
Q

is the notochord still present in sarcopterygeans

A

yes

215
Q

what kind of teeth are found in the rhipidistians

A

labrynthodont teeth

216
Q

why are rhipidisteans so important

A

theyre the direct ancestors to tetrapods

217
Q

when did tetrapods step onto land

A

late paleozoic

218
Q

what is tetrapoda formally characterized by

A

presence of a chiridium

219
Q

what is a chiridium

A

muscular limb with joints and digits

220
Q

what were the labrynthodonts

A

transition animals between rhipidisteans and tetrapods (ancient amphibians)

221
Q

what is the best studied rhipidistean

A

eusthenopteron

222
Q

the cleithrum of fishes turns into what on humans

A

turns into the spine of the scapula

223
Q

acanthostega was an ancient amphibian with how many phalanges

A

8

224
Q

what did tiktaalik look like

A

amphibian skull, fish body

225
Q

whats the order of transition species (oldest to newest)

A

acanthostega, tiktaalik, ichthyostega, limnoscelis, labryinthodonts

226
Q

what did ichthyostega look like

A

had a forelimb and a hing limb (7 digits)

227
Q

how many digits did limnoscelis have

A

5

228
Q

what is an eft

A

midpoint in the life cycle of newts where they are red and terrestrial

229
Q

what subclass are the modern amphibians within

A

lissamphibia

230
Q

what kind of organisms are in the caudata

A

those with a tail

231
Q

what kind of organisms are in the salientia

A

those without a tail

232
Q

what kind of organisms are in the apoda

A

those without feet

233
Q

what does paedomorphic mean

A

adult retining a juvenile feature

234
Q

what kinds of glands are in the skin of amphibians

A

mucous and poison glands

235
Q

amphibians can have physiologically active cromatophores, what do these do

A

produce colour

236
Q

amphibians have a urostyle, what is a urostyle

A

fusion of the vertebrae

237
Q

how many chambers are in an amphibian heart

A

3

238
Q

when is there a lateral line on amphibians

A

only in juvenile stages, lost in adulthood

239
Q

when did stapes first appear

A

in early labrynthodonts

240
Q

what kind of fertilization was most likely in labrynthodonts

A

external with eggs laid in water

241
Q

what kind of water was most common for labrynthodonts to frequent

A

freshwater

242
Q

when did lissamphibia arise

A

jurassic

243
Q

what is a lateral line organ

A

gives feedback on how water is moving (kinda like an inner ear)

244
Q

what is prismatic cartilage

A

calcium phosphate shell surrounding cartilage

245
Q

what kind of scales do sharks have

A

placoid scales

246
Q

whats another term for poison glands in amphibians

A

granular skin glands

247
Q

living amphibians have what kind of teeth

A

pedicellate

248
Q

what is the only lissamphibian to have internal fertilization

A

caecilians

249
Q

what are the two major amniote groups

A

sauropsida and synapsida

250
Q

what is within the sauopsids

A

birds, dinosaurs, reptiles

251
Q

what is within the synapsids

A

therapsids and mammals

252
Q

how are saurapsid and synapsid skulls classified

A

based on the temporal bone of the skull

253
Q

what are the skull types

A

anapsid, diapsid, synapsid

254
Q

what differentiates suarapsids and synapsids from amphibians

A

sacrum attaches the hind limbs to the spinal chord

255
Q

what is the sacrum

A

fusion of 5 vertebrae

256
Q

what are the 5 key characteristics of amniotes

A

sacral vertebrae, cornified epidermal scales, advanced kidney, deeper skull, cleidoic egg

257
Q

what are cornified epidermal scales

A

lizard scales, bird leg scales (not the same thing as fish scales)

258
Q

what kind of advanced kidney is characteristic of vertebrates

A

metanepharous kidney

259
Q

why is a metanepharoud kidney needed for advanced vertebrates

A

organism needs to be stingy with water and produce very concentrated urine

260
Q

what are the 4 extra embryonic membranes of the cleoidic egg

A

amnion, yolk sac, alantois, choreon

261
Q

what are the stem amniotes

A

cotylosaurs

262
Q

what is the mnenomic device for the 12 cranial nerves

A

oh oh oh to touch and feel a girls vagina ah heaven

263
Q

what are the 12 cranial nerves

A

olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abduceans, facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory, hypoglossal

264
Q

what are the three branches of the trigeminal nerve

A

ophthalmic, maxillary, mandibular

265
Q

where are the trochlear nerves found

A

superior oblique muscles

266
Q

where is the absuceans nerve found

A

lateral rectus

267
Q

where is the glossopharyngeal nerve found

A

tongue and pharynx

268
Q

where is the accessory nerve found

A

skeletal muscle

269
Q

where is the hypoglassal nerve found

A

below the tongue

Vertebrate Anatomy (10 decks)

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