Final Flashcards
Carolus Linnaeus
developed the scientific naming method “Binomial Nomenclature”
Robert Hooke
created compound microscope
father of cell theory
Antony Van Leeuwenhoek
created the first microscope able to visualize microbes
Ignaz Semmelweis
proved handwashing was a good idea
Louis Pasteur
used an s-shaped flask to disprove the SG theory and was the one that was credited as the one to prove the biogenesis theory
Robert Koch
proved bacillus anthracis caused Anthrax
developed aseptic lab techniques
Edward Jenner
discovered that exposure to cowpox protects against smallpox
created first vaccine (smallpox)
Alexander Fleming
who discovered penicillin?
why is this class important?
learning how to control microbial growth, keeping food spoilage at a minimum, and how microbes are good for us
what are the rules for genus species naming
genus (first word)
species (second word)
has to be italicized or underlined
first word has to be capitalized
you can abbreviate after naming once
Are viruses alive? Why or why not?
no they are not alive.
viruses are not alive because they’re not made of cells, they don’t have a metabolism
what experiment did pasteur performed to disprove spontaneous generation.
made an s-shaped flask in order to let air in to prove that it wasn’t the air causing microbial growth
antibiotics
a compound produced of one living thing (microbes) to block the growth of other microbes
What drug was the first “magic bullet” that was used to kill a pathogen without killing the host? How many attempts did it take to create it?
salvarsan - arsenic based compound to treat syphilis
took 606 attempts
What year did Fleming discover penicillin? In what year was it mass produced and put into use?
discovered in 1928
1944 is when is was mass produced at put to use
recombinant DNA
when you take DNA from more than 1 source and put it together
ex: genetically modifying bacteria to produce products
bioremediation
using microbes to help clean up the environment
ex: microbes that can help with oil spills
biotechnology
use of microbes to improve human life
ex: yogurt, beer, cheese
What is the PRIMARY way that our normal microbiota protects us? What are some other reasons that we appear to need it?
competitive exclusion - good microbes take up space so they protect you
they also produce vitamins, control the growth of other microbes using antimicrobial compounds, lowers the pH
What is a biofilm? Why are they a problem for us? How do they help microbes survive (2 or 3 different ways)?
a capsule or “blanket” that covers an entire community of microbes is biofilm
they’re a problem for us because it keeps them safe from antibiotics or immune system, its hard to get rid of them all (which you have to do)
they help the microbes by sharing nutrients, DNA
What does the term compound in compound light microscope mean?
compound means multiple lenses, doesn’t include objective lenses, means (eye pieces + objective lenses)
scanning power objective magnification (small one)
4x
The ocular lens has a magnification of
10x
low power objective magnification
10x
high dry power objective magnification
40x
oil immersion objective magnification
100x (total 1000x)
Do shorter or longer wavelengths provide better resolution?
shorter wavelengths (why electron microscopes provide better resolution than light microscopes)
Why is oil needed while using the oil immersion lens?
the oil has the same refractive index as glass which keeps light from bending or refracting too much
3 key features about the transmission electron microscope
sees internal structures
magnification of 100,000x
resolution of 50 picometers
A capsule stain is an example of a negative stain. What does that mean?
staining the background in order to visualize a structure
3 key features about the scanning electron microscope
sees surfaces in 3d
magnification of 10,000x
resolution of 10 nanometers
What are the 4 steps in the gram stain? What does the gram stain tell us about gram-positive and gram-negative cell walls?
1) crystal violet stain (primary stain)
2) iodine (mordant). crystal violet and iodine become a complex and attach onto structures
3) decolorizer (alcohol). gram + cells remain purple. gram - cells become colorless
4) counterstain (safrin). stains everything red. gram + cells are still purple. gram - cells are red
What is the key genus of organism that we are looking to identify with the acid-fast stain?
mycobacterium
What 2 types of organisms produce spores that can be identified with a spore stain?
clostridium and bacillus
resolution
the ability of the lenses to distinguish two points
the _______ the wavelength the ________ the resolution
shorter, greater
reflection
when light strikes a surface and bounces off
why do we use immersion oil?
to get better resolution, without it light rays are going to bend and refract
immersion oil has the same refractive index as
glass
electron microscopes have no…
lenses
what are the 2 different electron microscopes
scanning and transmission
What is the KEY difference (of several) between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
eukaryotes have a nucleus
prokaryotes do not
How many chromosomes do bacteria have? What is the shape?
1 chromosome thats a circle
How much smaller are bacteria than the average eukaryotic cell?
30-50 times smaller
strepto
chains
staphylo
clusters of bacteria
What is a neatly organized glycocalyx called? Why does it increase virulence?
glycocalyx is a sticky sugar coating
neatly organized is called a capsule
increases virulence because the capsule evades phagocytosis
Who has the more complex flagella motor, bacteria or human sperm?
bacteria because it uses a rotary motor
What type of bacteria have axial filaments?
spirochetes (cork-screw shaped)
What is the function of fimbriae? Pili (sex pilus)?
fimbriae is used for attachment
pili are used for transferring DNA
What cell structure used for movement do bacteria NOT have?
cillia, they rely on flagella
What is the key feature of a gram-positive cell wall? How about a gram-negative cell wall?
gram + cell walls have a THICK peptidoglycan cell wall
gram - cell walls have a thin peptidoglycan cell wall but have a lipid outer membrane
What makes the cell wall of Mycobacterium different than most bacteria?
it has a waxy material in their cell walls called “mycolic acid”
What key ingredient is missing in bacterial plasma membranes which is the primary reason that almost all of them need a cell wall to keep from bursting?
cholesterol
What is the shape of a bacterial ribosome (in svedburgunits)? How does that differ than most human ribosomes?
bacteria are 70S ribosomes
a
humans are 80S ribosomes (we do have 70S ribosomes in the mitochondria
explain how bacterial endospores work
living organisms but “paused”
survive in hostile environments
bacillus and clostridium species can form spores
waits for environment to improve before coming back alive
why are spores protected
dehydrated
hibernate for thousands of years
covered with a thick coat
what are the 2 different types of phospholipid bilayers?
hydrophilic –> water loving head
hydrophobic –> water fearing tails
bacterial cell membranes are lacking what…
cholesterol
cytoplasm
the “guts” of a cell
plasma membrane
the bouncer of a cell
what we need goes, what we dont need leaves
nucleous
where ribosomal RNA is produced
nucleus
houses and protects DNA and continues protein synthesis
nuclear pore
openings in the nucleus so RNA can leave & fine ribosomes
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
is covered in ribosomes
modifies and packs proteins
smooth ER
not covered in ribosomes
makes lipids, carbs, and inactivates toxins
cillia
moves cells or moves material across the structure of cells
microvilli
increase surface area
Golgi apparatus
primarily modifies and tags products that will be shipped out to a cell
peroxisomes
break down fat and other organic compounds
lysosome
digestive system of the cell
breaks down bacteria, damaged organelles, food
microtubules and microfilaments
key to the cytoskeleton
filament is a solid structure
tubules is hollow
mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell
where 95% of ATP comes from
ribosomes
site of protein synthesis
bacteria has 70S
humans have 80S
free ribosomes
make proteins for the cell
fixed ribosomes
make proteins that leave the cell
centrioles
needed for mitosis and cell division
flagella
used for movement
like not bacteria’s rotary movement
metabolism
the sum of all chemical and physical processes that occur in an organism
catabolism + anabolism
Anabolism
any part of your metabolism that requires energy and leads to growth
catabolism
taking large things and breaking them down, releases energy
ex: digestion
In what form is much of our energy lost?
heat
Remember the 2 key differences between respiration and fermentation
respiration (what humans do): lots of energy produced but useless low energy waste products
fermentation: only a little bit of energy produced but useful high energy waste products (ex: milk –> yogurt)
Of the 4 nutritional types of all living things, what is the most important one for us to understand?
chemoheterotrophs (what humans are & what most bacteria are): get energy from chemicals, other feeders meaning that they consume other things
the 2 key electron carriers are…
NAD (worth 3 ATPs as NADH)
FADH(worth 2 ATP as FADH2)
glycolysis steps
1) 1 glucose becomes 2 pyruvate
2) net gain of 2 ATP (spend 2 to make 4)
3) 2 NADH produced (worth 3 ATP each)
intermediate steps
1) 2 pyruvate becomes 2 Acetyl coA
2) 0 ATP produced
3) 2 NADH produced
krebs cycle steps
1) 2 Acetyl coA complete the cycle
2) 2 ATP produced
3) 6 NADH produced
2 FADH produced (each worth 2 ATP)
what is the running total of ATP after all the steps to cellular respiration
36
mesophile
moderate temperature loving microbes
optimal growth temp is 37 C (98.6 F)
almost all human pathogens are mesophiles
Psychrotroph
organisms that like room temp or refrigerator temp
food spoilage organisms or foodborne illnesses
obligate aerobic bacteria
gather at the top of the test tube in order to absorb maximal amount of oxygen because they require oxygen
Obligate anaerobic bacteria
gather at the bottom to avoid oxygen, can not survive in the presence of oxygen
facultative anaerobes
grow best with oxygen (at top), but can grow without oxygen (bottom)
aerotolerant anaerobes
does not need oxygen but is tolerant of oxygen
is spread all around
microaerofiles
loves a little bit of oxygen
can not grow at the top, cant grow at the top, but closer to the middle
biofilm
protective coating around an entire community
how organisms attach to surfaces
when an organism has biofilm it’s 1000x harder to kill
immune system has a hard time getting to them
HAS to get 100% of the organism
organisms get healthier while under a biofilm
What is agar? Why is it important in the lab?
agar is a thickening agent
important in a lab because it allows for a growth surface
is NOT food
What is a bacterial colony?
all organisms produced from a single ancestor
visible colonies will have millions of cells
What is binary fission analogous to in humans?
mitosis
steps to bacterial growth curve
1) lag phase: preparing to divide, no increase in cells
2) log phase: exponential or logarithmic increase in cells. easiest time to kill them
3) stationary phase: birth = death, as many cells are dying as those being born
4) death phase: logarithmic decrease.
turbidity
how cloudy or clear something is
a way to know microbial growth
What temperature range is the “danger zone” for food spoilage?
40-140 F
when microbes are growing and producing toxins
What are the key tips to keep leftover food safe?
properly freezing and thawing (in refrigerator)
cooking food at appropriate temp
store food in small containers
What does a hypertonic environment do to a bacteria? How do we take advantage of this?
hypertonic environment: when there’s more solutes outside of a cell then there is inside
sucks water out of bacteria(plasmolysis)
we take advantage of this by using canned goods, salt or sugar sucks water out of bacteria, not killing them but shutting off their metabolism so they cant divide
What are the 4 Biosafety levels?
BSL-1: almost everything we work w/ in lab. minimal risk. nonpathogenic strains
BSL-2: should use gloves, moderate risk
BSL-3: organisms that can kill you, but there’s vaccines and things to cure or prevent them
BSL-4: organisms with no treatments, no vaccines
generation time
how long it takes a bacteria to divide into two
fast organisms are 20 minutes, sometimes lower
the shorter the time, the more organisms that are there
Compare disinfection and antisepsis
disinfection: used on surfaces
antisepsis: on living tissue
Is commercial sterilization an actual form of sterilization? What is it designed to destroy?
commercial sterilization is not a form of sterilization
it is designed to destroy c diff in canned goods
Does a bacteriostatic agent kill microbes?
no, it inhibits their growth
Remember that there are many factors that influence the effectiveness of disinfection. The key factor is the presence or absence of _____________________
organic matter (fecal material, spit, blood)
How does moist heat kill microbes? What is the time, pressure, and temperature in our autoclave? What is the key thing to remember when using an autoclave?
moist heat denatures proteins
in our autoclave, for 15 mins 15 psi at 121 C
when using an autoclave, its important to remember it only works when it comes into direct contact with the organism
How does dry heat sterilization (like flaming a loop) kill microbes?
oxidizes, peels electrons off
What does HEPA stand for?
high efficiency particulate air filter
What are good examples of items that you would use filtration to sterilize?
use filtration anytime you can’t heat something up (vaccines)
What are the 2 key differences between phenol and phenolics? Hint: The 3rd thing is that phenolics don’t smell as bad. What is the best example of a phenolic? In what environment does a phenolic work where most disinfectants will not?
phenolics are used now because they’re more effective, less toxic, and less irritating
example of a phenolic is o phenylphenol (lysol)
phenolics work in the presence of organic matter
What is in most antibacterial soaps?
Triclosan
Where would you find the very effective antiseptic chlorhexidine?
surgical hand scrubs, mouthwashes, shampoos
What does the chlorine in bleach become before it is an effective oxidizing agent?
hypochlorous acid
Is it generally easier to kill a virus with or without a lipid envelope? Gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria?
without the lipid envelope would be easier to kill
gram negative bacteria are stronger than gram positive bacteria
Which antimicrobial did we talk about that is more effective at killing Mycobacterium than most?
phenolics
Define a gene
sequence of DNA that codes for a functional product (most of the time a protein)
difference between genotype and phenotype
genotype is your genetic makeup
phenotype are genes that are being used (observable traits)
DNA complimentary base pairs
A - T
G - C
what direction is dna read in
5’ to 3’
steps of DNA replication.
unwind DNA so DNA polymerase can read it, builds continuously or not continuously
How is the lagging strand different than the leading strand
leading strand is synthesized continuously
lagging strand runs the wrong direction and has to be looped around, has more steps than leading strand
DNA polymerase
DNA replication, reads and builds DNA
RNA polymerase
Transcription, reads DNA and builds RNA
Define transcription
conversion of DNA to mRNA
translation
mRNA to protein
What is removed from eukaryotic RNA before it leaves the nucleus
introns
3 letter sequences for the 1 start codon
AUG
3 stop/nonsense codons
UAA, UAG, UGA
What is degeneracy?
When two codes code for the same amino acid, can tolerate mutation without any problems
what is the most common type of genetic mutation?
base - substitution or point mutation
What is usually the most damaging type of genetic mutation?
frame shift mutation
what is the main way DNA is recombined in transformation
DNA is transferred and recombined as naked DNA in solutions
what is the main way DNA is recombined in conjugation
DNA is transferred and recombined through a pilus on a plasmid
what is the main way DNA is recombined in transduction
DNA is transferred and recombined using a phage or bacteriophage
Define a plasmid
non-chromosomal or extra chromosomal genetic material
can self-replicate
phage
virus that infects bacteria
What is the key feature of genetic vectors like plasmids and phages?
they are self-replicating
Do we make restriction enzymes or find them?
we find them
Why is the PCR so important to the study of genetics? What are the basics of the PCR process?
PCR is polymerase chain reaction
this allows us to amplify DNA
uses rapid temp change & chemicals to rip it apart and build new
Are gene guns used with plant or animal cells (usually)? How about microinjection?
gene guns are used with plant or animal cells
microinjections are used with animal cells
What is cDNA?
complementary DNA
What are the 2 key examples of biotechnology that we talked about in class?
human insulin
human growth hormone
What is the difference between infection and disease?
infection is when you’ve been colonized by a pathogen
disease is a disruption of homeostasis
Are transient microbiota important?
they are important
can lead to immune or neurological responses
Does Dr. O believe that our relationship with our microbiota is primarily an example of commensalism or mutualism? Why?
it is an example of mutualism because both sides win
What are the 2 factors that increase the risk of infections by opportunistic pathogens?
compromised host
wrong location
Define probiotics
living organisms to enhance health
prebiotics
fiber to feed organisms already in your body
What are Koch’s postulates? What are they used for? Why can’t they be used to find the causative agents for all infectious diseases?
they are a way to find the causative agents of a disease
they can’t be used all the time because you might not be able to isolate the organism, you can’t use it if an organism causes multiple diseases, and if one disease is caused by multiple organisms
Define signs
things that can be measured
symptoms
subjective things you have to say something about
communicable
can be spread from one to another
contagious
EASILY spread from one to another
noncommunicable
not spread from one to another
incidence
number of people that get a disease during a given time period
prevalence
how many people have the disease (old cases + new cases)
When do we reach herd immunity?
70% - depends on how contagious disease
What is a secondary infection? What is the best example?
they are the second infection you get after already getting sick
an example of the flu leading to pneumonia
the key predisposing factors that increase infectious disease risk
anatomical
malnutrition
seasonality (flu season, cold weather)
fatigue
the 5 stages of disease. During what stages can you spread a disease?
incubation period, prodromal period, period of illness, period of decline, convalescence
can spread disease during all 5 stages
the basic differences between contact, vehicle, and vector spread of disease
contact spread is when you come into direct contact
vehicle spread are substances like food or water
vector spread is living things carrying diseases
What is a fomite?
inanimate object that spreads disease
Know the 3 types of contact transmission
direct: contact with someone with a disease
indirect: fomites carrying diseases
droplets: someone sneezing and getting their droplets on you
What percent of hospital patients acquire nosocomial infections? Why?
5-15%
compromised hosts, strong microbes, and chain of transmission
What is virulence? What are some factors that can increase virulence?
virulence is how dangerous an organism can be
things that increase virulence are gram negative envelopes around bacteria and capsules
What is the most common nosocomial infection? What nosocomial infection has the highest mortality rate?
the most common are infections from catheters (UTIs)
most deadly are pneumonia
What is the most common portal of entry?
mucus membranes of respiratory tract
What is the parenteral route?
anytime you bypass one of your body’s defenses (bite, surgical wound, needles)
What are the 3 adherence factors that you are supposed to remember?
fimbriae
capsule (neatly organised)
bio-films
How do capsules increase virulence?
they evade phagocytosis
What is antigenic variation? What organism is the best example that we talked about?
some organisms can change what they look like on the outside
an example would be the flu
What mineral does a siderophore attach to?
iron
What is a toxoid? An antitoxin?
toxoid - vaccine against toxins (tetanus shot)
antitoxin - antibody therapy to neutralize toxins
What are the key portals of exit?
exits are the same as entry
respiratory and gastrointestinal
Know the ley differences between endotoxins and exotoxins. (gram-positive versus gram-negative, fever or no fever, high or low lethal dose, etc)
endotoxins - produced by gram negatives, FEVER, LD50 is higher, more common
exotoxins - produced by gram positives, LD50 is lower, more toxic
helicase
unwinds DNA
DNA ligase
only needed on lagging strand
seals gaps after fragments of DNA are built
Penicillin G
natural penicillin, injected
NARROW SPECTRUM
Penicillin V
natural penicillin. Taken orally
Methicillin
Semisynthetic penicillin.
led to MRSA
discontinued
Oxacillin
Semisynthetic penicillin
Replaced methicillin
Ampicillin
Broad-spectrum semisynthetic penicillin.
Amoxicillin
Broad-spectrum semisynthetic penicillin
Augmentin
top of the line penicillin
Primaxin
carbapenem
intramuscular injection
resistance
Cephalosporins
Similar to penicillin
Grouped by generations
Bacitracin
neosporin
kills gram + bacteria
Vancomycin
narrow spectrum but kills MRSA
Isoniazid
Inhibits mycolic acid synthesis
for tuberculosis
Treatment time is 6 months
Ethambutol
less effective
used to avoid resistance issues
Chloramphenicol
BROAD spectrum
toxicity concerns
Streptomycin
BROAD-spectrum
kills mycobacterium
resistance
Neomycin
BROAD spectrum
neosporin
Gentamicin
BROAD spectrum
kils pseudomonas
used with CF patients
Tetracycline
BROAD spectrum
kills chlamydia and rickettsia
can lead to superinfection
Erythromycin
NARROW-spectrum (gram +)
Polymyxin B
neosporin
gram - (pseudomonas)
injury to plasma membrane (rare)
Rifampin
Very important in the treatment of Tuberculosis
injures plasma membrane
Nalidixic acid
UTIs
Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
BROAD spectrum (gram +)
inhibits nucleic acid
Trimethoprim + sulfamethoxazole
Broad-spectrum
bacteriostatic
inhibit the conversion of PABA into folic acid
slows resistance down
sulfa drugs can also be used on …
burns
What is the most common source of antibiotics found in nature?
streptomycin in soil
What does broad spectrum mean versus narrow spectrum? Why should narrow spectrum antibiotics be used whenever possible?
broad spectrum: you can kill/inhibit multiple types of microbes
narrow spectrum: you can kill one or the other (gram + OR gram - bacteria)
narrow spectrum should be used because theres less damage
What is a superinfection?
secondary infection you get after using antibiotics
ex: yeast infections or C.diff
Why is it harder to develop antimicrobial drugs against
eukaryotes like protozoa?
because we are eukaryotes and we are similar, narrow spectrum drugs usually
Which type of penicillin must be injected? Why?
penicillin G because it’s not stable in stomach acid
Why is Methicillin no longer in use in America?
evolution, used too much to the point where it doesn’t work anymore
What is the difference between Amoxicillin and Augmentin?
both semi-synthetic penicillin
amoxicillin: with a penicillinase inhibitor called potassium clavulanate
augmentin: stronger, inhibitor, top of the line penicillin
Know the 3 antibiotics in topical triple antibiotic preparations.
polymyxin B (inhibits gram - bacteria)
bacitracin (kills gram +)
neomycin (broad spectrum)
What is the primary role in the drug Ethambutol in the treatment of TB?
usually paired with isoniazid (stronger)
we use ethambutol because combining the two slows evolution/resistance
What process do sulfa drugs block in bacteria? Why doesn’t it cause a problem in humans?
sulfa drugs inhibit production of folic acid
doesn’t effect us because we have to eat folic acid
Do antiviral drugs kill viruses?
no, it slows viral replication
What are some of the things that we do that speed up antimicrobial resistance?
misuse
overuse
abuse
Why are drug combinations often better than using one class of antibiotic?
slow resistance
make them work better
What is the difference between variolation and vaccination?
Variolation: intentional infection with small amounts of small pox
vaccination: induces immunity without infecting you
What was the 1st disease eradicated? Why? Who is next?
smallpox in 1979
a worldwide effort caused the eradication
polio is next
Why are conjugated vaccines used? Who do they help?
they add proteins bc it increases immune response in children
What kind of vaccine is most effective? What needs boosters? Who benefits from conjugated vaccines?
attenuated vaccine
toxoids need boosters
children benefit from conjugated vaccines
Why are viral vaccines more important than bacterial
vaccines?
because it’s easier to kill off bacteria than viruses
Where are many viral vaccines (including influenza virus) grown?
in chick embryos
they need cells to have a metabolism
What does the future of vaccines look like? Will we use vaccines for things that aren’t even infectious?
not needing needles, not having to be refrigerated
we will use vaccines for things that aren’t infectious (alzheimer’s vaccine)
Know the difference between sensitivity and specificity
sensitivity: no false negatives
specificity: no false positives
Why are monoclonal antibodies beneficial? What are some examples that we talked about in class?
they’re beneficial because you only need 1 antibody to clone
examples: humera (drugs that block conditions for autoimmune conditions), and pregnancy tests
What is a hybridoma?
part cancerous b cell and part antibody producing b cell
What have myeloma cells forgotten how to do?
die
What are the 4 types of hypersensitivity reactions?
type 1: igE immune reactions to allergens
type 2: igG or igM cytotoxic hypersensitivity
type 3: immune complex
type 4: delayed cell mediated hypersensitivity reaction
Type I hypersensitivity reactions involve which immunoglobulin?
igE
What do mast cells and basophils release?
they release histamine
What is the difference between systemic and localized anaphylaxis?
systemic anaphylaxis: life-threatening, vasodilation
localized anaphylaxis: eyes getting itchy, swollen, not dangerous
How do desensitizing injections work? What immunoglobulin is in them?
expose tiny amounts of antigen that leads to an igG response that stop the igE response if coming into contact with allergen
The primary chemical mediator of Type I reactions is________?
igE antibodies
mast and basophils releasing histamine
What is the medication given to some women to avoid
hemolytic disease of the newborn? How do they
determine who needs the injections?
RhoGAM
any mom with a negative blood type is given this injection
What is the primary cause of autoimmune diseases? A
lack of ______________
tolerance
Know the key features about AIDS that we highlighted, including why it is called a retrovirus, the stats about HIV infections and deaths, vaccine difficulties, etc
retrovirus: RNA virus that uses enzyme reverse transcriptase to become DNA
the stats: globally 1 million infections a year, in us 40k infections a year
vaccine: body has hard time with retrovirus
When was AIDS discovered? Has it been around longer than that?
1981 was discovered
1983 when they discovered it was AIDS
but it came in 1908 from animal meat
Know the receptor that the HIV virus is looking for, as well as the most common coreceptor
receptor is cd4
coreceptor is ccr5
What is reverse transcriptase?
enzyme that reverses transcription
What are the phases of HIV infection?
phase 1: no symptoms
phase 2: sick more often
phase 3: when HIV becomes AIDS
When does HIV infection become AIDS?
stage 3 when cd4 t cell count is at 200
Why are some people “immune” to AIDS?
1-3% of ppl are ccr5 mutants, which is the HIV virus’ coreceptor
What are the drugs that slow the progression of HIV trying
to accomplish? Why do we use a cocktail of multiple drugs?
they are trying to slow down the virus
this cocktail of drugs is more effective
Define eutrophication? What is the rate-limiting nutrient associated with eutrophication?
eutrophication: overgrowth of microorganisms because you fed them nutrients
phosphorus is the rate-limiting nutrient
The use of microbes to detoxify or degrade pollutants is
called ___________?
bioremediation
microbes for oil spills
When determining if water is safe the most important things to look for would be caused by contamination with ____________
fecal material
Understand the basics of the water treatment process? What are the major steps?
A
series of filtrations
water supply gets screened –> water in mixing tank –> flocculation basin –> actual filter –> disinfection (with chlorine) –> store then drink
What kind of treatment is needed before sewage water is drinkable?
tertiary treatment
Is commercial sterilization a sterilizing tool?
no
What are the major steps in commercial sterilization?
sterilize container, soften foods before food in can, use heat to kill microbes, then seal can
What microbe is commercial sterilization aimed at killing?
all clostridium botulinum
uses 12D treatment
What does 12D treatment mean?
12 decimal
treatment effective enough that it can kill 12 decimals full of microbes
What is a term that can be used on labels when talking about irradiated food?
electronic pasteurization
What would be an advantage of using high pressure to
“disinfect” food?
preserves color and flavour in a way that heat can’t
What is rennin? How does it pertain to cheese production
rennin - enzyme that curds milk, needed to make cheese
attenuated whole-agent
weaked, still alive
not pathogenic
most effective
immunocompromised can’t take it
inactivated whole-agent
killed organism, less effective
series of doses
safer
toxoid
vaccines against toxins
needs a BOOSTER (every 10 years)
subunit
exposed to part of an organism
covid vaccines
conjugated vaccines
children take these because they have protein added to them
how are monoclonal antibodies produced
take antibody and expose it to mouse –> get antigen from mouse, get spleen cells from mouse and mix them with myeloma cells –> hybrid oma (part cancer part antibody producing) –> immortal antibodies
Know the basic of blood typing immunology, including the
4 ABO blood types and the antigens and antibodies of each blood type
ABO blood type is determined by the antigens you have on the surface of your RBC
A: a antigens & anti-b antibodies
B: b antigens & anti-a antibodies
AB: both & neither antibody –> UNIVERSAL RECIPIENT (AB+)
O: neither & both antibodies –> UNIVERSAL DONOR
the Rh blood typing system, and hemolytic disease of the newborn
Rh system: + blood means you have the Rh antigen, - blood means you don’t
hemolytic disease is babies with Rh - blood with anti-Rh antibodies after exposure (2nd pregnancy)
bacillus
Rod shaped bacteria
coccus
A round, spherical bacterium
when dealing with enzymes…
enzymes - biological catalysts, can work nonstop, speed up chem. reactions, made of proteins
most enzyme names end in “ase”
enzymes work by lower activation energy
enzymes can speed up reactions by 1-2 BILLION times
