Exam2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is meiosis?
A
Cell division that leads to a halving of chromosome number and ultimately to the production of sperm and egg.
2
Q
What are autosomes?
A
Non-sex chromosomes
3
Q
What are pairs of chromosomes called?
A
homologous chromosomes are paired chomrosomes of similar size and shape. They also house the same genes
4
Q
What is a karyotype?
A
The number and types of a chromosome present
5
Q
What is the ploidy of organisms that have two sets of chromosomes?
A
2n
6
Q
What information can be obtained from an individual’s karyotype?
A
The types of chromosomes present in the individual
The number of autosomes in the individual
The ploidy of the individual
7
Q
If a cell has 24 chromosomes, how many chromosomes would each of its four daughter cells have after meiosis?
A
- Meiosis is a reduction division that reduces the number of chromosomes passed on to daughter cells by one-half.
8
Q
What type of cell divides in meiosis II?
A
A haploid cell
9
Q
How is Meiosis II similar to mitosis?
A
Both meiosis II and mitosis are cell divisions involving the separation of sister chromatids.
10
Q
Which structure is directly correlated with the production of genetic variability in the daughter cells produced during meiosis?
A
Chiasma. The chiasma is an X-shaped structure formed from the crossing over of homologous chromosomes, which can then exchange segments at the crossover sites.
11
Q
What are sister chromatids?
A
Two identical chromosomes connected at the centromere
12
Q
Do replicated and unreplicated chromosomes contain the same number of chromosomes?
A
Yes, they do. While there are more copies of a given chromosome. The chromosomes are exactly the same, so the cell is considered to have the same number of chromosomes even after replication.
13
Q
What is an autosome?
A
A non-sex chromosome
14
Q
What does an unreplicated chromosomes look like?
A
A single strand of DNA
15
Q
What does a replicated chromosome look like?
A
Two sister chromatids connected at the centromere
16
Q
What is a tetrad?
A
Also called a bivalent. It is one pair of homologous chromosomes that are joined together during prophase I and metaphase I of meiosis.
17
Q
What is the composition of a tetrad at the beginning of prophase I?
A
One pair of homologous chromosomes
18
Q
What are chromatids?
A
They are replicated chromosomes. Only replicated chromosomes are referred to this way.
19
Q
In the Na/K potassium pump what is pumped in and what is pumped out?
A
3 sodium out and 2 potassium in
20
Q
What are the products of the light reaction?
A
ATP, NADPH
21
Q
When does CO2 enter photosynthesis?
A
During the dark reactions or Calvin cycle
22
Q
When the Na/K pumps are working what is the relationship of the charge on the inside verses the outside of the cell?
A
The charge is more negative inside
23
Q
What is co-transport?
A
It is a combination of active transport and facilitated diffusion. Active transport is used to create a gradient. This gradient is then used to transport other molecules across the membrane via facilitated diffusion.
24
Q
How do plants power co-transport?
A
H+ gradients.
25
How do animals power co-transport?
Na+ gradients
26
Describe the H+ sucrose co-tranport system.
The H+ pumps H+ out of the cell. This creates a high H+ gradient outside of the cell. This higher concentration gradient outside the cell allows for facilitated diffusion to power H+ and sucrose back into the cell.
Moreover, the active transport of H+ creates a concentration gradient that allows for facilitated diffusion of sucrose
27
What are ion channels?
Pores which selectively allow ions to enter the cell.
28
What are uniport channels?
Transport one substance in one direction
29
What are symport channels?
Transport two substances in one direction
30
What are antiport channels?
Transport two or more substances in opposite directions
31
What is the chloroplast? Describe its structure?
It is a highly structured membrane rich organelles. The innermost membrane of the chloroplast is called the thylakoid membrane. The thylakoid membrane is folded up upon itself forming many disks. These disks are called grand.
32
What is the space inside the thylakoid membrane called?
The thylakoid space.
33
What is the stoma?
The cytoplasm of the chloroplast
34
What is the goal of the light harvesting reactions?
To convert sunlight energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH.
35
Where do the light harvesting reactions occur?
The thylakoids
36
What ranges of light are best absorbed by plant
Blue/violet and red
37
What colors are worst absorbed in photosynthesis?
Green/yellow
38
What is the goal of the light harvesting reactions
To trap light energy and store it as ATP and NADPH
39
Where do light harvesting reaction occur?
On the membranes of the thylakoids
40
Which photosystem absorbs the electron?
Photosystem II (P680)
41
What is photolysis?
The splitting off of H+ electrons from H2O. The H+ is kept inside the thylakoid space forming the proton gradient. The O2 is released and is the source of all of the Oxygen in our atmosphere.
42
What happens to the electrons from photosystem II?
They reach reach photosystem I (P700). Eventually it reduces NADP+ to NADPH
43
What happens to NADHP?
It is sort of an electron taxi. They are used in the Calvin cycle to reduce CO2 to make sugar
44
Where doe the O released in photosynthesis come from?
H2O
45
Do the light reactions requires CO2?
NO.
46
Describe what the light reactions do?
It produces O2 from H2O
47
What do the light independent reactions do?
They convert CO2 into sugars. These reactions are also called the Calvin Cycle
48
What is the Calvin Cycle?
It is the light independent reactions that turn CO2 into sugars
49
What are the three possibilities when a photon strikes and object?
It can be absorbed, transmitted or reflected.
50
What colors do green leaves reflect?
Green
51
What colors do green leaves absorb?
Red and blue
52
What colors to carotenoids absorb?
blue and green and they appear yellow, orange and red because that is what they reflect.
53
What color photons are most effective as absorbing photosynthesis?
Blue to violet and red
54
What is pumped into and out of the cell in Na/K pump?
3 Na out. 2 K in
55
What are the two configurations of the Na/K pump?
The Na+/K+ pump has two configurations, one which can bind to Na+ and the other which can bind to K+
56
What are the ways to change the configuration of the NA/K pump?
One way to change configuration of the Na+/K+ pump is to phosphorylate it with the phosphate group from ATP
57
Plants require CO2 from the atmosphere for photosynthesis. Do they also require O2?
B. Yes, plants perform aerobic respiration and, therefore, require O2.
58
About how long can the ATP reserves in your body be used to keep you alive?
Seven minutes
59
Which process produces the most ATP?
oxidative phosphorylation
60
What is the biological function of fermentation?
To reduce pyruvate, thus converting NADH to NAD+
61
How many of the four steps of aerobic respiration (glycolysis, oxidation of pyruvate, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation) actually produce ATP?
Three
62
When do sister chromatids separate during meiosis?
Anaphase II
63
During which stage of meiosis is a non-disjunction most like to occur in women?
Anaphase I
64
A fruit is a ripened
Ovary
65
Where does meiosis occur in a fern?
The sporangia
66
What is the function of a fruit?
To aid seed dispersal
67
Which grouping includes all of the vascular seed plants?
Angiosperms + conifers
68
You want to observe bee pollination in the field. You have two patches of flowers, one with larger red flowers and one with smaller blue flowers. Which patch is most likely to attract bees?
B. The patch with smaller blue flowers
69
Do fructose and glucose have identical metabolic pathways?
No
70
True or false?
You observe that a plant cell contains a chloroplast and can perform photosynthesis. This same cell will also contain a mitochondria and be able to perform aerobic respiration.
71
Everyone knows that plants have a net intake of CO2 and a net output of O2. What is molecular source of this O2 produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis?
H2O
72
n which state region would you expect to find the greatest concentration of C4 plants?
The grasslands of Kansas
73
True or false: The Rubisco enzyme in a C4 plant is the same as the Rubisco enzyme in a C3 plant.
True
74
Arrange the following colors of light in order of most readily absorbed by the chloroplast to least readily absorbed by the chloroplast.
Blue - Red - Green
75
How many molecules of CO2 must be input into the Calvin cycle to produce one molecule of glucose?
Six
76
Is photorespiration more common in C3 or C4 plants?
C3
77
What would you assume about a plant with Kranz anatomy?
It is a C4 plant
78
Do both photosynthesis and aerobic respiration utilize electron transport chains?
yes
79
Do both aerobic respiration and photosynthesis synthesize ATP through the generation of H+ gradients
Yes
80
Do both photosynthesis and aerobic respiration have a net production of ATP
Yes
81
Does photosynthesis consume Oxygen?
No
82
What is the effect of a high concentration of ATP on phosphofructokinase?
The enzyme will be allosterically modified and be temporarily turned off
83
Why would a muscle cell sometimes perform lactic acid fermentation if this fermentation produces so much less ATP and produces a poisonous byproduct?
Muscle cells under stress can be oxygen starved and must perform lactic acid fermentation to regenerate NAD+
84
What is the direct role of O2 in mitochondrial electron transport?
O2 functions as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain
85
How are ATP synthesized in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle?
Substrate-level phosphorylation
86
Which of the following processes produce NADH?
Glycolysis, Oxidation of Pyruvate, & Krebs Cycle
87
Is aerobic respiration endergonic or exergonic?
Exergonic
88
What is the main function of fermentation?
To oxidize NADH
89
During which stage of meiosis do homologous chromosomes separate?
Anaphase I
90
rocesses which increase genetic diversity in the daughter cells produced in meiosis occur during which stage(s)?
Prophase I and Metaphase I
91
I’m looking at a plant with distinct free-living sporophyte and gametophyte plants. The plant also has vascular tissue. This plant is a:
B. Fern (Pteridophyta)
92
I’m looking at another plant. This plant has vascular tissue and seeds. This plant is a:
Pine (Coniferophyta) or a Flowering plant (angiosperm)
93
Plants with naturally-occurring red flowers are typically pollinated by:
birds
94
In a moss, meiosis produces:
spores
95
What is pheophytin? What photosystem is it in?
It is the first electron acceptor in photosystem II.
96
What is plastoquinone?
A small hydrophobic molecule that can transport protons between molecules. It carries protons across the thylakoid membrane from the stroma to the lumen creating the H+ gradient.
97
Where do the concentration of protons in the thylakoid lumen come from?
The protons transported by plastoquinone
98
When photosystem II is active, the pH of the thylakoid interior dips to what?
5
99
Is the pH of the stoma higher or lower than the pH of the thylakoid interior?
It is higher. About 8
100
What is produced by the light dependent reactions?
ATP, NADPH
101
What is a stacks of thylakoids called?
grana
102
What is the stoma?
The fluid inside the chloroplast
103
What are thylakoids?
The flat disks inside the chloroplasts
104
What is the space inside the thylakoid called?
The thylakoid space
105
What does the concentration gradient of H+ in the thylakoid space do?
It drives ATP synthase
106
What does the electron transport chain of photosystem II accomplish?
It drives H+ into the stoma creating a concentration gradient. This concentration gradient then powers the formation of NADPH and ATP.
107
What is photophosphorylation
The process that takes places at the end of Photosystem II that add a phosphate to ADP to make it ATP
108
What is chemiosmosis?
is the movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient. More specifically, it relates to the generation of ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration or photosynthesis.
109
How is H2O split to get more electrons to drive photosystem II?
The energy harvested from photosystem II is harvest to split more water molecules.
110
What is the final electron acceptor in non-cyclic photophosphorylation?
NADP
111
How is photosystem I (p700) energized?
By an electron from photosystem II or by sunlight
112
What is the name of the electron transporter produced by photosystem I?
NADH
113
What is the output of photosystem II?
ATP
114
What is the output of photosystem I?
NADPH
115
What is the next stop for excited electrons after p680?
Pheophytin
116
What happened between pheophytin and p700?
The electrons moving down through that chain power the plastoquinone to carry the H+ into the thylakoid space.
The electrons ar then passed to a small diffusible protein called plastocyanin (PC).
117
What does the the presence of H+ in the thylakoid space do?
ATP synthase uses the resulting proton-motive force to phosphorylate ADP creating ATP
118
What is plastocyanin?
It takes the electron from photosystem II to photosystem I
119
What is ferredoxin
In photosystem I, it passes electrons to an enzyme that catalysis the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH
120
What is the difference between a centromere and a centrosome?
A centrosome is one of the structures that pulls the cell apart during mitosis. A centromere is where sister chromatids connect
121
What is a nondisjunction?
Nondisjunction refers to the failure of pairs of chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate during meiosis or mitosis.
122
What is vascular tissue in plants?
Plant tissue consisting of cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body.
123
What are Bryophytes?
A moss, liverwort, or hornwort; a nonvascular plant that inhabits the land but lacks many of the terrestrial adaptations of vascular plants. These are the amphibians of the plant world. They are the next major step after algae on the phylogenetic tree.
124
What are pines and furs examples of?
Gymnosperms. There are vasculars plant that bears naked seeds--seeds not enclosed in specialized chambers. They were the first plants to adapt seeds.
125
What are angiosperms?
They are flowering plants. These are the vast majority of contemporary plants.
126
What is the function of fruit in angiosperms?
They are the ovaries.
127
What are Charophyceans?
The green algal group that shares two ultrastructural features with land plants. They are considered to be the closest relatives of land plants. These were the first plants to evolve
128
What are gametangium?
(plural, gametangia) Multicellular plant structures in which gametes are formed. Female gametangia are called archegonia, and male gametangia are called antheridia.
129
What are archegonia?
The female gametangia.
130
What are antheridia?
the male gametangia
131
What is an example of a seedless vascular plant?
a ferm
132
The living plants that are most similar to the first plants to bear gametangia are the _____.
bryophytes
133
What is the alternation of generations?
A life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte; characteristic of plants and some algae.
134
What dominates the reproductive cycle of mosses and other bryophytes?
the haploid gametophyte dominates the life cycle.
135
What is a sporophyte?
In organisms undergoing alternation of generations, the multicellular diploid form that results from a union of gametes and that meiotically produces haploid spores that grow into the gametophyte generation.
136
Are sporophytes haploid of diploid?
They are diploid.
137
How do terms and moss produce gametes?
Mitosis. Since the archegonia dan the antheridia are haploid.
138
Where do fern antheridia develop?
on the underside of the gametophyte
139
What is it that we think of as a fern?
A diploid sporophyte
140
What is the male gametophyte in pines?
Pollen grains are male gametophytes.
141
In an pine and embyro is?
immature sporophyte
142
What is the function of the gametophyte tissue that surrounds the pine embryo?
This gametophyte tissue is a source of nourishment for the embryo.
143
What are pollen grains?
The structures that contain the male gametophyte of seed plants.
144
What is the stomata?
Specialized pores that assist in photosynthesis by allowing the exchange of gases between the outside air and the sporophyte interior are called stomata.
145
What is a rhizoid
A long, tubular cell or filament that anchors bryophytes to the ground is called a
146
What is the multicellular haploid stage of a plants life called?
gametophyte
147
What is the multicellular diploid stage of life called?
sporophyte
148
What is the hallmark of gymnosperms?
Seeds to not form and enclosed structure
149
What is double fertilization?
It is unique to angiosperms. In flowering plants one sperm nucleus fertilizes the egg and the other sperm nucleus fuses with two other nuclei found within the ovule, thus forming triploid endosperm.
150
The male gametophytes of flowering plants are also referred to as _____.
Pollen grains
151
In flowering plants the integuments of the ovule develop into a(n) _____.
Seed coat
152
A carpel is composed of _____.
stigma, style, and ovary
153
A stamen consists of _____.
Anther and filament
154
In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen grain to the _____ of a flower on the same plant or another plant of the same species.
Stigma
155
What is pollination?
Pollination is the act of transferring pollen from the male parts of a flower (the anther) to the female parts of the flower (this id the stigma in the first instance).
156
After successful pollination, a pollen grain produces a(n) _______ , a long filament that grows down the length of the style.
A pollen tube.
157
What contains one or more ovules, which produce the female gametophytes.
The ovary
158
The nucleus of which cell undergoes mitosis to form two sperm cells.
generative cell
159
What is endosperm?
The fusion of sperm with the polar nuclei
160
What is double fertilization?
Double fertilization refers to the fusion of two sperm with different nuclei in the female gametophyte. One sperm fertilizes the egg, forming the 2n zygote. The other sperm fuses with the polar nuclei, forming a 3n nucleus. The triploid nucleus divides several times, forming the nutrient-storage tissue called endosperm.
161
What is fruit?
A fruit is derived from the ovary of a flower and encloses one or more seeds.
162
During what stage of meiosis do sister chromatids separate?
Anaphase II
163
What plants have double fertilization?
angiosperms
164
What are seed plants?
angiosperms and conifers
165
What are vascular plants?
ferns conifers and angiosperms
166
Which plants have the gametophyte stage as the dominant part of the lifecycle?
Mosses
167
What structure in angiosperms is responsible for making the pollen tubes race each other to fertilize the egg?
The style
168
What is the male gametophyte in a pine tree?
Pollen grain.
169
Which cellular cycle produces the least amount of ATP?
oxidation of pyruvate
170
What is oxidation of pyruvate?
Following glycolysis, it is the conversion of pyruvate molecules to carbon dioxide, acetyl coenzyme A, and NADH. The last step of glycolysis produces two pyruvate molecules in the cytosol, which are then brought to the mitochondrial matrix via active transport.
171
What links glycolysis to the citric acid cycle?
oxidation of pyruvate
172
Is any ATP made during the oxidation of pyruvate?
No
173
Where does oxidation of pyruvate take place?
In the mitochondria
174
What is the fuel for the citric acid cycle?
Acetyl-CoA
175
How many carbons in a glucose?
6
176
What the ratio of glucose to pyruvate?
1:2. For each glucose molecule (which contains 6 carbon), you can produce two pyruvate molecules.
177
What is the result of glycolysis?
2 3carbon molecules of pyruvate. 2 ATPs and 2 NADPHs
178
Where does glycolysis occur?
In the cytosol of the mitochondria
179
What is the relationship of the Krebs cycle to the citric acid cycle?
They are the same thing
180
Which components of photosynthesis are endergonic?
the light dependent reactions and the Calvin Cycle are both endergonic
181
What is the ultimate destination for elections energized by non-cyclic photophosphorylation?
NADP
182
Do cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation produce ATP?
Yes
183
What is the function of the Calvin cycle?
To produce glucose
184
Where are the components of the light harvesting reaction found?
On the thylakoid membrane
185
During the calvin cycle, carbon is?
reduced by NADPH. When carbon is turned into glucose it is energized. So, another way to ask this is, what energies carbon to turn it into glucose?
186
What is the problem with Rubisco?
During the Calvin Cycle, because it will catalyze either the addition to CO2 or O2 to RuBP, it forces CO2 to compete with O2. This dramatically slows the rate of reduction of CO2.
187
What is photorespiration?
It consumes energy and release CO2, thus undoing the work of photosynthesis. Moreover, when it occurs it reduces the overall rate of photosynthesis.
188
How does CO2 get into photosynthesizing tissues?
There are openings between guard cells called stomata
189
What does the stoma do?
It lets CO2 in and O2 out.
190
Why do stoma close?
To prevent dehydration.
191
What happens when the stomata close?
CO2/O2 transport stops and photorespiration increases.
192
What can plants living in hot dry environments do since they must close their stomata to prevent dehydration?
They can become C4 plants. This means they have a secondary way to fix carbon. They use PEP to bind to CO2 before sending to the Calvin Cycle. The calvin cycle in C4 plants is protected from O2
193
What are CAM plants?
They do photosynthesis in two stages. They close their stoma during the day and do the calvin cycle then
194
Is it more expensive to produce glucose in the C4 cycle or in the Calvin cycle?
It costs more ATP to produce glucose from the C4 cycle.
195
What is special about the anatomy of C4 plants?
There is more tissue segmenting it. Therefore the internal organs for the plant can be protected from CO2
196
Where does the Calvin cycle take place?
in the stroma of chloroplasts
197
One turn of the calvin cycle fixes how many molecules of CO2?
One
198
How many turns of the Calvin Cycle for one molecule of G3P?
3
199
What is produced by cyclic photophsphorylation? Why might this be a good thing?
ATP w/o the NADPH. The cell needs more ATP than it does NADPH
200
How is CO2 fixed into sugar?
The calvin cycle.
201
What are the three phases of the Calvin Cycle?
1.) Fixation 2.) Reduction 3.) Regeneration
202
Why is the C3 pathway called the C3 pathway?
The first stable molecule formed after CO2 fixation is a 3-carbon molecule.
203
What is Kranz anatomy?
The so called wreath anatomy of C4 plants.
204
What saturates at a lower CO2 level, C3 or C4 level?
C4 plants
205
What are the pathways of aerobic respiration?
Glycolysis, Oxidation of Pyruvate, The Krebs Cycle, Oxidative phosphorylation
206
What is the goal of glycolysis?
to break down glucose to form two pyruvates
207
Why is glycolysis performed?
The cytoplasm
208
What is the net production of glycolysis?
Besides the two pyruvate. 2 ATPs and 2 NADPHs
209
Do all organisms can produce ATP by breaking down sugars
Yes
210
In glycolysis, the carbon-containing compound that functions as the electron donor is _______
Glucose
211
Once the electron donor in glycolysis gives up its electrons, it is oxidized to a compound called
Pyruvate
212
What is the net reaction of glycolysis?
Glucose is the electron donor and it is oxidized to pyruvate. The electrons removed from glucose are transferred to the electron acceptor, NAD+, creating NADH.
213
What happens to the electron removed form glucose?
They are transferred to the electron acceptor, NAD+, creating NADH.
214
Among the products of glycolysis, which compounds contain energy that can be used by other biological reactions?
pyruvate, ATP, and NADH
ATP is the main product of cellular respiration that contains energy that can be used by other cellular processes. Some ATP is made in glycolysis. In addition, the NADH and pyruvate produced in glycolysis are used in subsequent steps of cellular respiration to make even more ATP.
215
What do you have at the end of the first stage of glycolysis?
2 G3P molecules.
| The first stage of glycolysis is the energy requiring part
216
What happens in the second part of glycolysis?
The G3Ps are converted to 2 pyruvate. This will create a net of 2 NADH and 2 ATP.
217
What is pyruvate?
Highly oxidized carbon sugar. There are two created by each glycolysis. It is a three carbon sugar.
218
What do you do with pyruvate at the end of glycolysis?
There are two options:
If Oxygen is present: put it though the Krebs cycle
If no Oxygen is present: Ferment it
219
If something is fermented is more ATP made?
No
220
Why do we have to breath?
To continuously make ATP
221
How much energy is in the pyruvate?
Even though it is pretty oxidized, there is still some energy in it.
222
Where does the Krebs Cycle occur?
In the mitochondria
223
What takes the bring the pyruvate into the mitochondria?
coenzyme A
224
How is ATP during glycolysis?
substrate level phosphorylation
225
FADH2 is a product of what?
The citric acid cycle
226
In glycolysis, what starts the process of glucose oxidation?
ATP
227
In glycolysis there is a net gain of _____ ATP.
Two
228
The first CO2 that is released during aerobic cellular respiration is _____
Between glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
229
What are the end results of procession pyruvate?
CO2, NADH, and acetyl CoA
230
What would speed up the oxidation of pyruvate?
High concentration of NAD+, CoA or AMP
231
What carries off elections in the citric acid cycle?
NADH and FADH2
232
How is ATP produced in the citric acid cycle
substrate-level phosphorylation
233
What is the input of the citric acid cycle?
acetyl CoA
234
Where is most the engr. form the glucose at the end of of the citric acid cycle
NADH, FADH2
235
What molecule is produced in the citric acid cycle as a by-product of glucose oxidation and is subsequently released into the bloodstream and carried to the lungs, where it is removed from the body?
CO2
236
If you were to add one of the eight Krebs cycle intermediates to the culture medium of yeast growing in the laboratory, what do you think would happen to their rates of ATP and carbon dioxide production?
ATP and CO2 production would increase
237
In mitochondrial electron transport, what is the direct role of O2?
The only place that O2 participates in cellular respiration is at the end of the electron transport chain, as the final electron acceptor. Oxygen's high affinity for electrons ensures its success in this role. Its contributions to driving electron transport, forming a proton gradient, and synthesizing ATP are all indirect effects of its role as the terminal electron acceptor.
238
What job does the electron transport chain accomplish in order to drive the formation of ATP?
The proteins in the electron transport chain pump protons from the matrix of the mitochondria to the intermembrane space, thus establishing an electrochemical gradient.
