EXAM 3 REVIEW Flashcards
1
Q
Ch. 9 - Preparing for the Performance Interview
A
- be careful of judging what you cannot measure
- training is essential for successful reviews. you must know how to create a genuine dialogue with the interviewee. be a good listener by not talking when the other wants to talk and by encouraging the employee to speak freely and openly. be an active listener by asking appropriate and tactful questions, not a passive listener who lets the other party talk with little guidance or support.
- avoid “why” questions that place the interviewee on the defensive bc they may intentionally or unintentionally communicate disapproval, disbelief or mistrust
- playing the role of evaluator reduce the two-way communication process and negatively effects your relationship.
- interviewees perceive interviewers who know how to handle performance-related information, assign goals, and give feedback to be equitable, accurate and clear during performance interviews, in other words to be credible.
2
Q
Preparing for the Performance Interview:
Reviewing Rules, Laws, and Regulations
A
- there are no laws that address the performance review directly, but several EEO laws and guidelines pertain to the review process.
- you need to be keenly familiar with laws such as the following to avoid charges of unlawful practice during reviews: Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act as emended, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 that forbid discrimination based on age, race, color, gender, religion, national origin, and physical or mental impairments.
- all elements of the employment process are covered by civil rights laws and EEO guidelines, including hiring, training, compensating, promoting, transferring and discharging.
- be careful of assessing traits such as honesty, integrity, appearance, initiative, leadership, attitude, and loyalty that are difficult to rate objectively and fairly.
- using unreliable and unvalidated performance appraisal systems may cause serious legal problems bc personal preferences, prejudices, and first impressions may lead to intentionally inflating or deflating performance ratings to get even, punish employees or promote them to another department.
- laws do not require performance reviews, but ones conducted must be standardized in form and administration, measure work performance, and be applied equally to all employees.
- scholars warn that communication btwn “superiors” and “inferiors” in the review process leads to ritual forms of address that are guided by commonly understood cultural and social stereotypes, traditional etiquette and gender-specific rules.
- if this is so, do not be surprised if you violate EEO laws and guidelines. The American workforce is increasingly older, and age discrimination is becoming the most prominent area of litigation even though older workers perform better than younger workers.
- all supervisors who conduct performance reviews must receive a detailed written guidelines and instructions and be trained in conducting all aspects of reviews, particularly the interview.
- they must follows these guidelines to the letter.
- have two or more staff review employees separately as cross-checks on accuracy and avoidance of bias
- be sure performance appraisals are reviewed with employees, making sure employees have the chance to offer suggestions and raise concerns before signing them. employees should have full access to all records pertaining to their work.
- age will play an ever-greater roles as baby boomers turn 50 and 60 in ever-greater numbers.
3
Q
Selecting Review Model:
A
- theorists and orgs have developed performance review models to meet EEO laws and to conduct fair and objective performance-centered interviews applicable to different types of positions and orgs.
- their goals are to establish competencies, set goals and expectations, monitor performance, and provide meaningful feedback.
4
Q
Review Model:
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS) Model
A
- in the BARS model, skills essential to a specific position are identified trough a position analysis and standards are set, often with the aid of industrial engineers.
- typical jobs for which behaviors have been identified and standards set include telephone survey takers (at so many telephone calls per hour), meter readers for utility companies (at so many meters per hour), and data entry staff or programmers (at so many lines or entry per hour).
- job analysts identify specific skills and weigh their relative worth and usage. each job has specific measurable skills that eliminate game-playing or subjective interpretations by interviewers.
- employees report high levels of review satisfaction with the BARS model bc they feel they have greater impact on the process and see interviewers as supportive
- they know what skills they are expected to have, their relative worth to the org, and how their performance will be measured. however, not every job has measurable or easily identifiable skills, and arguments often arise over when, how, and by whom specific standards are set.
- Gordon and Miller have also discovered that raters distort the evaluation they make on subjective instruments in order to achieve goals other than providing an accurate assessment of the employee’s performance (e.g., maintaining interpersonal relationships and group harmony)
- THE BARS model focuses on skills
5
Q
Review Model:
Management by Objectives (MBO) Model
A
- the MBO model invovles a supervisor and an employee in a mutual (50-50) setting of results-oriented goals rather than activities to be performed.
- advocates for the MBO model contend that behaviorally based measures can account for more job complexity, be rated directly to what an employee does, and minimize factors the employee cannot control.
- this model is designed to be less role ambiguous and subjective than person-based measures by making clear which behaviors are required for a specific job. it facilitates performance feedback and goal setting by encouraging employer-employee discussions regarding strengths and weaknesses.
- the MBO model classifies all work in terms of four major elements: inputs, activities, outputs and feedback.
- inputs include equipment, tools, materials, money and staff needed to do work
- outputs are results, end products, dollars, reports prepared, or services rendered.
- feedback refers to subsequent supervisor reaction or lack of it to the output
6
Q
Review Model:
Management by Objectives (MBO) Model
continued
A
- when you act as a performance review interviewer using a MBO model, follow these guidelines:
- always consider quality, quantity, time and cost. the more criteria you use, the greater the chances that the measurement will be accurate.
- state results in terms of rangers rather than absolutes. allow for freedom of movement and adjustment.
- keep the number of measurable objectives critical to performance to not more than size or eight, and set a mutual environment.
- try for trade-offs between mutually exclusive aims and measures. an objective that is too complex may be self-defeating. for example, attempts to reduce labor and decrease cost at the same time may create more problems than you solve.
- when the value of the performance is abstract, initiate practices that make it measurable.
- if you can’t predict conditions on which performance success depends, use a floating or gliding goal that enables you to adapt to changing circumstances. unfortunately, the strengths of the MBO model, including its interactive nature and adaptability to complex positions, have led many orgs to abandon it bc of the large number of meetings required and the amount of documentation necessitated. Gordon and Miller write that unlike other models, it can’t be standardize to facilitate comparisons across individuals or organization units.
- the MBO model focuses on goals.
- applies four criteria to each position: quality, quantity, time and cost.
- do not consider too many objectives.
- beware of setting complex objectives.
7
Q
Review Model:
Universal Performance Interviewing Model
A
- William Cash developed the UPI and tested it in more than 40 organizations
- the model begins with four basic questions that can serve as guidelines for fairness and comparisons among employees. interviewers must be able to specify what is missing or not being done well so they can provide feedback to institute change.
- What is not being done that should be?
- What expectations are not being met at what standard?
- Could the person do it if motivated?
- Does the individual have the skills to perform as needed?
- narrow each problem to a coachable answer. for ex, maybe no one has emphasized that getting 100% of customers’ numbers at the beginning of calls is critical bc the customer number drives the system and makes it easier to access billing and other info under that number.
- maybe the employee knows that customer’s number by heart and intends to place it in the correct position on the screen after the customer hangs up. the observation judgement dilemma has always been a problem for performance reviewers.
8
Q
Review Model:
Universal Performance Interviewing Model
continued
A
- the four questions in conjunction with six key words shown in the figure enable interviewers to make several observations about performance. this model can be employed with others (such as the 360-degree review process) or with separate observations by supervisors, peers and customers (internal and external) that can be compared to one another for consistency, trends, and rater reliability.
- the six key words are (1) keep, (2) stop, (3) start, (4) less, (5) more, and (6) now
- a sheet of paper with the four q’s in columns can provide the bases for coaching sessions that take place weekly for production workers and monthly for professionals.
- a summary session may be done quarterly with an annual review to set goals for the coming year, review progress and look at developmental needs.
- once you have answered the four basic qs start on the model with keep, the first of the six words.
- when an employee is doing something well, make sure the person knows you appreciate a job well done. then go to stop, followed by start, less, more and finishing with a time frame for improving performance.
- the word now emphasizes the importance of making appropriate changes immediately. define now specifically in terms of weeks or perhaps months.
9
Q
Review Model:
Universal Performance Interviewing Model
continued
A
- the UPI focuses on performance and work requirements.
- try to understand why performance is lagging.
- reviews must recognize excellence as well as problems
- play the role of coach that than evaluator or disciplinarian
- don’t turn a mole hill problem into a mountain
- hint and suggest before correcting.
- the UPI enables you as a coach to start with positive behavior you wish the employees to maintain, followed by behaviors you wish corrected now. this begins the interview on a positive note. your stop list should be the shortest and reserved for behaviors that are qualitatively and procedurally incorrect, place an employee at risk, or are destructive to others in the workplace.
- you can present each of the four questions and the six words at different nonverbal and verbal levels, including hints, suggestions, and corrections. for ex., I want you to stop doing…, I want you to start doing…now, You must do more of…, You must do less of…
- Interviewers may spend too much time on the analytical end and too little time on a specific behavior to be altered and how.
- if you can’t provide a specific alternative behavior, there is no need for a performance review.
- the purpose of every performance interview is to provide accurate feedback to the employe about what must be altered, changed or eliminated and when.
- most employees want to do a good job and the performance mentor or coach must provide direction for resolving the problem
- another part of the model, crucial in performance interviews, are the two Ss- Specific and Several
- performance interviews must not be a guessing game. the two Ss enable interviewers to provide specific examples to show the problem isn’t a one-time incident but a trend.
- vague comments and suggestions may harm relationships and fail to improve performance.
10
Q
Review Model:
The 360-Degree Approach
A
- this approach has gained widespread acceptance, particularly among fortune 500 companies
- it allows org members to receive feedback on their performance, usually anonymously, from all major constituencies they serve such as supervisors, peers, subordinates, subcontractors, customers and so on.
- each firm employs a somewhat unique 360 degree process, questionnaires and interview schedules, but we can describe the typical process
- an employee works with a supervisor to select a number of evaluators, such as a direct supervisor, staff at the same level as the employee, colleagues, and individuals from departments that the employee interacts with on a regular basis.
- this model requires a team and interpersonal skills. questionnaires covering skills, knowledge and style are sent to each of the evaluators.
- the completed questionnaires are summarize and in some cases scores are displayed on a spreadsheet.
- the manager selects individuals from the original group to serve as a panel to conduct a feedback interview.
- the interviewer/facilitator may take the raw data from the questionnaire and interview the evaluators.
- the employee receives the data in advance of the meeting. each participant comes with coaching or behavior change input. the purpose is not to attack or blame the employee but to provide objective, behavior-based feedback with suggestions where necessary for improvement.
- the employee may not need much improvement, so compliments are acceptable.
11
Q
Review Model:
The 360-Degree Approach
continued
A
- the interviewer/facilitator may ask the employee to start the meeting with reactions to the data, then ask open questions with neutral probes.
- Tell me about your position in R&D; Tell me more; Explain it to me; Describe your frustrations with the consultant’s training manual.
- If you were going to take on a similar project, what would you do more or less of?
- the 360 approach uses a group feedback interview
- employ open questions and probe into answers
- a plan for improvement is essential
- be aware of pluses and minuses of each review model
- once the feedback session is finished, both parties formulate a plan for improvement.
- the use of multi-source feedback for employee development works best in organizations that sue a goal-setting process from the top down.
- the 360 approach has a number of advantages. the questionnaires and interview provide objective data and feedback necessary for employee improvement and development bc this feedback emanates from multiple sources: supervisors, peers, subordinates, and customers. the employee not only has control over who gives feedback but is able to read, hear, and discuss the data that provides documentation for dealing with performance problems
12
Q
Review Model:
The 360-Degree Approach
continued
A
- critics: although it is designed for employee development, it gets entangled with the appraisal process.
- multiple raters may increase the scope of info provided to the employee but not better information.
- anonymous ratings may be inaccurate, incompetent, and biased.
- quantitative and structured feedback on generic behaviors is easy to acquire, score and disseminate, but it may have a serious problem of accuracy, fairness and interpretations bc it is hard to control rater tendencies.
- involving persons in authority may taint the process and reduce its credibility.
- although most feedback reviews lead to improvement performance, 38% of effects are negative. they offer suggestions:
- use this system for development rather than decision-making purpose, help employees interpret and react to ratings, minimize the amount of info given to employees, don’t have performance review team members evaluate employees in all areas, and use the 360 degree system on a regular basis rather than once or occasionally.
- different scores from raters, the involvement of raters that re untrained or inexperiences in areas they are rating, and the assumption that increasing the number of raters results in feedback quality.
13
Q
Review Model:
The 360-Degree Approach
continued
A
- Garold Markle says that this model is extremely inefficient bc it is enormously time consuming on the part of both interviewer and interviewee and takes weeks or months in turnaround time.
- this delay may result in both parties forgetting what they had to say during the process.
- critics recognize it’s strengths and weaknesses and recommend solutions to make it more effective and reliable
- use this model as a regular part of performance reviews and for decision making only. don’t use this approach as the primary mechanism for delivering downward feedback.
- provide training and guidance for all raters, emphasizing objectivity in ratings to lessen bias and limit raters to their areas of expertise. don’t assume that more raters equals quality feedback, and be careful of overloading employees with data.
- choosing the best model is important for the review process but the best model will fail if the performance interview isn’t conducted skillfully and if neither part is dissatisfied with its nature and outcome.
- orgs often try one system after another and may adopt the system others are abandoning. the communication that takes place during the interview or interviews is critical in every system.
14
Q
Conducting the Performance Interview
A
- study the employee’s past record and recent performance reviews. review their self-evaluation
- understand the nature of their position and work. pay attention to the fit btwn the employee, the position, the org, etc.
- identify in advance the primary purpose of the interview, especially if it is one of several with an employee. prepare key q’s and forms you will use pertaining to measurable goals
- know yourself and the employee as a person. from an appraisal perspective, you may see the interview as required and scheduled by the org, superior-conducted and directed, top-down controlled, results-based, past-oriented, concerned with what rather than how, and organizationally satisfying.
- by contrast, from the developmental perspective, the interview is initiated by individuals whenever needed, subordinate conducted and directed, bottom-up controlled, skill-based, now and future oriented, concerned with HOW, cooperative, and self-satisfying.
- select a developmental approach, Markle’s “catalytic coaching” rather than an appraisal approach.
- understand the relationship that exists btwn you and the employee. research reveals that two or more reviewers often evaluate the same employee different bc their relationships differ
- schedule the interview several days in advance so that both parties can prepare thoroughly. prepare a possible action plan to be implemented following the interview.
- relationship influences both parties and the nature of the interview.
- select and understand the perspective of the interview.
15
Q
Opening the Interview
A
- put the interviewee as ease with a pleasant and friendly greeting
- get the person seated in an arrangement that is nonthreatening and not superior-subordinate.
- fear of what performance interviews might yield interferes with communication btwn the parties and keeps the review process from achieving full potential
- establish rapport by supporting the employee and engaging in a few minutes of small talk. orient the employee by giving a brief outline of how you want the interview to proceed.
- if there is something the employee wants to talk about first, do it. an alteration of your interview plan is worth the improved communication climate.
- encourage them to ask questions, bring up topics, and participate actively throughout the interview.
- be prepared by flexible in the opening.
16
Q
Discussing Performance:
A
- use all of your listening skills
- feedback is central in performance interviews
- communication skills are essential to successful performance interviews
- be aware of your own NV cues and observe the interviewee’s NV cues
- it is not so much WHAT is said but HOW it is said
- listen carefully and adapt your listening approach to the changing needs of the interview, listening for comprehensions when you need to understand, listening for evaluation when you must appraise, with empathy when you must show sensitivity or understanding and for resolution when developing courses of action to enhance performance.
- be an active listener is good advice and common sense; but interviewers must know WHY they are listening actively: motives may include a desire to exhibit efficient appraisal behavior, to show a concern for the interviewee’s well-being, or to collect evidence that may be used for or against the subordinate at a later date.
- the first two are positive, but the third may be detrimental to the interview and future interactions.
- maintain an atmosphere that ensures two way communication beyond level 1 by being sensitive, providing feedback and positive reinforcement, reflecting feelings, and exchanging information.
- feedback may be your most important skill. use a team of interviewers rather than a single interviewer. research shows that the panel approach produces higher judgement validation, better developmental action planning, greater compliance with EEO laws, more realistic promotion expectations, and reduced perception of favoritism
17
Q
Discussing Performance:
continued
A
- make the discussion full and open btwn both parties with the goal of improving individual and org performance.
- keys to success are your abilities to communication info effectively and encourage an open dialogue.
- strive to be a coach in career management and development.
- discuss the interviewee’s total performance, not just one event. begin with areas of excellence so you can focus on the persons strengths. strive for an objective, positive integration of work and results. cover standards that are met and encourage the interviewee to identify strengths. communication factual, performance related info and give specific examples.
- excessive praise or criticism can create anxiety or distrust. employees expect and desire to discuss their weaknesses.
- an employee that receives no negative feedback or suggestions of ways to improve will not know which behavior to change. discuss needed improvements in terms of specific behaviors in a constructive, nondirective, problem-solving manner.
- employees are likely to know what they are not doing, but unlikely to know what they should be doing. let the employee provide input.
18
Q
Discussing Performance:
continued
A
- probe tactfully and sensitively for causes of problems. on the other hand, don’t heap criticism upon employees. the more you point out shortcomings, the more threatening, anxious and defensive the employee will be.
- as the perceived threat grows, so will the person’s attitude towards you and the review process. it is often not what is intended that counts but what the other party believes is intended.
- Terry Lowe identifies seven ways to ruin the performance interview:
- the halo effect occurs when you give favorable ratings to all duties when the interviewee excels in only one.
- the pitchfork effect leads to negative ratings for all facets of performance bc of a particular trait you dislike in others.
- the central tendency causes you to refrain from assigning extreme ratings to facets of performance.
- the recency error occurs when you rely too heavily on the most recent events or performance levels. the length of service of an interviewee may lead you to assume that present performance is high because past-performance was high.
- the loose rater is reluctant to point out weak areas and dwells on the average or better areas of performance.
- the tight rater believes that no one can perform at the necessary standards
- the competitive raters believe no one can performance higher than their levels of performance.
- summarize the performance discussion and make sure the employee has enough chance to ask qs and make comments before establishing goals. use reflective probes and mirror qs to verify info received and feedback given. use clearinghouse qs to be sure the employee has no further qs or concerns.
- develop a true dialogue with the interviewee
- strive for a balance between criticism and praise.
- use questions to gain and verify info
19
Q
Setting New Goals and a Plan of Action
A
- focus on the future and not the past
- goal setting is the key to successful performance reviews and should constitute 75% of the interview.
- focus on future performance and career development. although it’s important to evaluate on the basis of past performance, it is just as important to anticipate future growth, set goals and establish career paths
- review previous goals before setting new ones bc both parties must be able to determine when goals have been met and why
- make goals few in number, specific and well-defined rather than ambiguous, practical, neither too easy nor too difficult, and measurable.
- avoid either or statements, demands and ultimatums
- combining feedback and employee suggestions with clear goals setting-while avoiding intentional or unintentional impositions of goals-produces the highest level of employee satisfaction. decide upon follow-up procedures with employee and how goals will be implemented
- the interviewee must be an active participant
20
Q
Closing the Interview
A
- close with the perception that the interview has been valuable to both parties.
- don’t rush it
- be sure the interviewee understands all that has transpired. conclude on a note of trust and open communication
- end with feelings that this has been an important session for the interviewee, interviewer, and org.
- if you have filled out a required form sign off on the agreements. if organizational policy allows, permit interviewees to put notes by items they feel strongly about
- provide a copy of the signed from as a record of the plan for the coming performance period.
21
Q
Approaching the Interview as a Coaching Opportunity:
A
- a new vision for orgs with an emphasis on developing, empowering and retaining the best talent is coinciding with a new vision of the performance interview, or in the words of Gordon and Miller, “conversation about performance.”
- Management consultant Garold Markle calls this vision “catalytic coaching”
- a comprehensive, integrated performance management system build on a paradigm of development. its purpose is to enable individuals to improve their production capabilities and rise to their potential, ultimately, causing orgs to generate better business results. it features clearly defined infrastructure, methodology and skill sets. it assigned responsibility for career development to employees and establishes the boss as developmental coach.
- catalytic coaching is future rather than past centered, places responsibility on employees rather than the supervisor and deals with salary indirectly.
- the supervisor is a coach rather than an evaluator. Markle declares that this approach spells the end of the performance review as we have known it.
22
Q
Approaching the Interview as a Coaching Opportunity:
continued
A
- when we reviewed several performance review models designed to develop employees and enhance performance, the notion of coaching-effective communication in a nonjudgmental atmosphere-was the centerpiece of each
- former pro-football coach Don Shula and former pro-football player Ken Blanchard have developed a set of basic principles that appropriately spell out the word “coach”
- Conviction Driven: never compromise your beliefs
- Overlearning: practice until it’s perfect
- Audible ready: respond predictably to performance
- Consistency of leadership: consistency in performance
- Honesty based: walk the talk
- they emphasize the importance of commitment to excellence, honesty, responsibility, and teamwork that result in effective interpersonal communication, a review that provides meaningful feedback, and an enhanced level of performance.
- the philosophy of coaching rather than judging performance has heightened the need for more frequent and improved performance interviews, discussions and development.
- frequent com. between supervisors and employees results in more favorable job-related performance ratings.
- Kenneth Wexley claims that if a manager provides coaching on an ongoing basis the appraisal interview becomes a review of issues that have already been discussed by the manager and employee in the past.
23
Q
Approaching the Interview as a Coaching Opportunity:
continued
A
- organizations are conducting various forms of performance interviews on a more frequent basis and are connecting them closely to developmental and coaching plans.
- employees prefer a supportive climate that includes mutual trust, subordinate input, and a planning and review process. create a supportive climate that involves the interviewee.
- they want to be treated sensitively by a supportive, nonjudgmental interviewer. they want to contribute to each aspect of the review, get credit for their ideas, know what to expect during the interview, have the ability to do what is expected, receive regular feedback, and be rewarded for a job well done.
- above all, the employee must see “fairness” in the performance interview, and it’s the nature of the communication that takes place during the appraisal interview that is especially critical in creating a sense of fairness about the process
- you can create a relaxed, positive and supportive climate by continually monitoring the employee’s progress, offering psychological support in the forms of praise and encouragement, helping correct mistakes, and offering substantial feedback.
- base your review on performance, not on the individual. provide performance-related info and measure performance against specific standards agreed upon during the previous reviews.
- employees see supervisors as helpful, constructive, and willing to help them solve performance-related problems when these supervisors encourage them to express their ideas and feelings and to participate equally in performance review interviews.
- “too seldom” is a common complaint
- providing feedback on a regular basis can avoid formal, once-a-year tooth pulling reviews dreaded by both parties.
- evaluate poor performance immediately before damage to the organization and employee is irreparable. avoid surprises during the interview causes by withholding criticisms until the formal review session. conduct as many sessions as necessary to do the right job.
24
Q
SUMMARY
A
- review an employee’s performance on the basis of standards mutually agreed upon ahead of time.
- apply the same objectives equally to all employees performing a specific position
- research and good sense dictate that performance, promotion and problem issues are discussed in separate interview sessions.
- performance review interviews occur at least semiannually, while promotion, salary and performance problem interviews usually take place when needed.
- deal with performance problems before they disrupt the employee’s work or association with your organization
- select a performance review model most appropriate for your org, employees and positions.
- for both employer and employee, flexibility and open-mindedness are important keys in successful performance review interview.
- flexibility should be tempered with understanding and tolerance of individual differences.
- the performance process must be ongoing, with no particular beginning or end. supervisors and subordinates are constantly judged by the ppl around them.
- by gaining insights into their own behavior and how it affects others, both parties can become better ppl and organization members.
25
Q
Ch. 10 - Persuasive Interview
A
- persuasive interview’s essential purpose is to influence how parties think, feeling and/or act.
- it’s a mutual interaction in which both parties must play active and critical roles bc persuasion is done with not to another. you take part in persuasive interviews every day as a customer or salesperson, recruit or recruiter, child or parent.
- the pervasiveness or persuasion in our daily lives leads Roderick Hart to write that one must only breathe to need to know something about persuasion.
26
Q
The Ethics of Persuasion
A
- ethics and persuasion are interrelated. more than 2000 yrs ago the greek theories Isocrates wrote that it is not enough to learn the mere techniques of persuasion; we must also be aware of the moral responsibilities when attempting to alter or reinforce the beliefs or behavior of others.
- his concerns about the state of ethics in ancient Greece are reflected in our twenty-first century society.
- fewer than 20% of respondents see practitioners such as lawyers, business execs, labor union leaders, stockbrokers, etc. as high or very high in ethics.
- lead David Callahan to write a book called the cheating culture: why most americans are doing wrote to get ahead.
- since the persuasive interview is a mutual activity, both parties share ethical imperatives.
- as receivers and senders of persuasion, we have the responsibility to uphold appropriate ethical standards of persuasion. in your role as a communicator and recipient of persuasive messages, ask yourself this: what ethical standards should guide my conduct in this particular case? what should i expect of others?
27
Q
The Ethics of Persuasion:
What is Ethical?
A
- when do we cross ethical boundaries?
- ethical issues focus on value judgments concerning degrees of right and wrong, virtue and vice, and ethical obligations in human conduct. notice the word degrees. it’s easy to agree that a person is trying to sell a fraudulent investment scheme or home repair rip-off, particularly to a vulnerable or desperate person, is unethical. other situations are not as easy. for ex., you may criticize a politician or insurance sales rep for using extreme fear appeals and then use these same appeals to persuade a friend to stop smoking or a child not to get into a car with a stranger.
- what about a “stealth strategy” in which an undercover person pretends to be a tourist, fellow student, or concerned citizen rather than an skilled persuader?
- even single, carefully selected words may tip the balance: depression for recession, socialist for government-funded institution, terrorism for all violent acts, excuse for explanation, propaganda for information
- every strategy and tactic discussion may be misused and identified as manipulative
28
Q
The Ethics of Persuasion:
Fundamental Ethical Guidelines
A
- although we don’t wish to force a given system of values or ethical code upon the reader, we do argue that he/she has a responsibility to form one. we believe that it’s desirable both for the immediate practical reasons of self-interest and for more altruistic reasons that a person accept responsibility for what he/she does in persuasion both as receive and as a source.
- the age-old golden rule remains relevant for your ethical conduct. do unto others are you would have them do unto you.
- while it is hard to develop a code of ethics applicable to all persuasive situation and agreeable to all, ethical communication should be fair, honest, and designed not to hurt people.
- BE HONEST: most of us are basically honest and seldom tell outright lies, but we might fib a bit about missing a class or being late for work, exaggerate a little to gain approval or sympathy, or fudge on a desire or motive. if we are truly honest, we will not attempt to conceal or true motives, compromise our ideas and idea to gain an advantage, fail to divulge disbelief in what we advocate, or camouflage unwillingness to fulfill commitments and promises. how will if eel about myself after this communicate act? could i justify by act publicly if I am called on to do so? - ask yourself these two qs to assess honesty
- BE FAIR: if you follow the golden rule, fairness won’t be an issue. ask yourself qs that address fairness. how vulnerable is the other party bc of status differences, how serious are the possible consequences, how adequate and fair are my arguments, etc. sometimes emotional and strong disagreements are common is persuasive interviews, but unfair tactics may result in irreparable harm to this and future interactions with this party.
29
Q
The Ethics of Persuasion:
Fundamental Ethical Guidelines
continued
A
- BE SKEPTICAL: have a healthy trust of others, but don’t be gullible. every con artist depends on your assistance and gullibility. balance your trust with skepticism, don’t let greed or getting something for nothing make you a willing accomplice. be wary of simplistic assertions, claims, promises, and solutions that guarantee quick fixes and really good deals. these people succeed bc their clients ask few questions, did no research, and refuse to listen to those who preached caution.
- BE THOUGHTFUL AND DELIBERATE IN JUDGEMENT: sometimes mere skepticism is not enough. the “buyer beware” notion of ethics, alive and well in Ponzi schemes epitomized by Madoff’s ventures, places the burden of proof on you, the persuadee. both parties in the persuasive interview should ask critical qs and demand answers backed by solid evidence. listen, think, question, synthesize, and research and then decide whether or not to accept a person, idea or proposal. we are typically more interested in appearance than substance. if we like the other party who looks like us, acts like us, sounds like us, talks like us and appears to have the right connections, we assume proposals are logical and acceptable.
- BE OPEN-MINDED: this does not mean that you don’t have strong beliefs, attitudes, and values or commitments, it does mean that you do not automatically assume that persuaders of certain professions, political parties, religions, races, genders, ages, etc. are untrustworthy or trustworthy, competent/incompetent, caring/uncaring, etc. this amounts to persuader profiling. don’t automatically reject or accept proposals that challenge the ways things have always been done or that appear to be new. be open to dissent and opinions of others.
- BE RESPONSIVE: provide verbal and NV feedback to other party so they can understand your needs, limitations, and perceptions of what is taking place and being agreed to. reveal what you are thinking and how you are reacting. be actively invovled in the interview from opening through close. persuasion can be seen as a transaction in which both persuaders and persuadee bear mutual responsibility to participate actively in the process.
- remember that appearance often outweighs substances and to always be open to opposing views.
- being fair is the basis to ethical persuasion.
30
Q
Most Successful Persuasive Interviews Meet the Following 5 Criteria:
A
- next step is to purge your list of prospects; quality is better than quantity. possibility of successful interview increases if your interviewee meets five criteria
- your proposal creates or addresses a need, desire or motive for this interviewee. if there’s no need or desire, there will be no persuasion
- your proposal and you are consistent with the interviewee’s values, beliefs and attitudes. lack of compatibility, trust or respect may results in failure to persuade.
- your proposal is feasible, practical or affordable for the interviewee. possibility is critical to persuade.
- your proposals advantages outweigh the disadvantages for interviewee. must acknowledge and neutralize stated and unstated objections.
- there is no better course of action for interviewee. your proposal should be the best among choices.
- once you’ve trimmed your list of interviewees, start preparing for the interview by analyzing each prospect.
31
Q
It takes a lot of hard work and research to meet these 5 conditions. There are several factors to take into account to assure the best results:
A
- Sources
- Analyzing the other party
- Physical and mental characteristics
- Socioeconomic background
- Culture
- Values/Beliefs/Attitudes
- Emotions
- Atmosphere
- Timing
- Physical Setting
- Outside sources
32
Q
Analyzing the Interviewee:
Personal Characteristics
A
- take into consideration age, gender, race, size, health, disabilities, physical fitness, and intelligence. any one or a combination of these characteristics may affect what a person is able to do or wants to do.
- avoid all too frequent societal stereotypes such as all elderly ppl are slow and gullible, blonds are dumb, hispanics are illegal aliens, women are technically challenged, and those with poor health lead unhealthy lives.
- each one of us is a composite of personal characteristics that is impossible to stereotype. research does indicate that a level of intelligence makes interviewees less receptive to persuasion.
- highly intelligent interviewees are more influence by evidence and logical arguments and tend to be highly critical. both factors make them more difficult to persuade.
33
Q
Analyzing the Interviewee:
Educational, Social and Economic Backgrounds
A
- level of education attainment may affect interviewees.
- college graduates tend to be more invovled in public affairs, the sciences, cultural activities, have good jobs with good incomes and to hold fewer stereotypes and prejudices, and also to be more critical thinkers, flexible and independent.
- socioeconomic background includes the interviewee’s memberships and are important bc our attitudes are strongly influence by the groups we belong to. the more committed an interviewee is the various groups the less likely you are to persuade this person with an effort that appears to conflict with group norms
- one of two major determinants of behavior intention os the normative influence on an individuals and its importance to the individual. normative influence is a persons belief that important individuals or groups think it is advisable to perform or not perform certain behaviors. know the persons occupation, income, avocations and hobbies, superior/subordinate relationships, marital status, geographical background, dependents, work experience, their ways of viewing people, places, things, events and issues
- memberships may be powerful outside forces.
34
Q
Analyzing the Interviewee:
Culture
A
- cultural differences may affect interview. western cultures tend to be “me” centered and stress the importance of individual accomplishments, leadership and accumulation of awards and things.
- Asia and similar countries are more “we” centered and stress the importance of the group or team and see those who stress self and claim individual achievement as distasteful and offensive.
- some cultures consider bribery a normal part of business, others feel that it’s necessary to give gifts are part of the process.
- bargaining is a essential part of persuasion in many cultures, often preceded by a relationship-building period over dinner or tea.
- in the US ‘time is money’ so americans expect others to be one time. in great Britain it is considered correct to be 5-15 mins late, and in Italy a person may arrive 2 hrs late and not understand why you are upset.
35
Q
Analyzing the Interviewee:
Values/Beliefs/Attitudes
A
- each culture has a set of generally accepted values - fundamental beliefs about ideal states of existence and modes of behavior that motivate ppl to think, feel or act in particular ways. values, often referred to as “hot buttons” by collect recruiters, sales reps, and politicians, are the foundations of beliefs and attitudes.
- the following scheme of values includes those central to the American value system, the hot buttons that motivate interviewees to think, feel or act in a certain way at certain times. determine which ones are most relevant to your interviewee
- Survival Values: peace and tranquility, personal attractiveness, preservation of health, safety and security
- Social Values: affection and popularity, cleanliness, conformity and imitation, generosity, patriotism and loyalty, sociality and belonging.
- Success Values: accumulation and ownership, ambition, competition, happiness, material comfort, pride, prestige and social recognition, sense of accomplishment.
- Independence Values: equity and value of the individual, freedom from authority, freedom from restraint, power and authority
- Progress Values: change and advancement, education and knowledge, efficiency and practicality, quantification, science and secular rationality.
36
Q
Analyzing the Interviewee:
Values/Beliefs/Attitudes
continued
A
- determine which values are most relevant to this interviewee in this situation and with this issue.
- political, economic, social, historical and religious beliefs emanate from values. determine which of those beliefs relate to a topic and proposal. if equity and value of the individual are important values, an interviewee is likely to support equal rights and opportunities for women and minorities. if education is important the person is likely to support increased school funding, give to college fundraising campaigns, etc.
- attitudes are relatively enduring combinations of beliefs that predispose ppl to respond in a particular way to ppl, orgs, places, ideas, and issues. if you’re a conservative, you are more likely to react predictably to thinks you consider to be liberal.
- attitudes come from beliefs that come from cherished values. determine the interviewee’s probable attitude toward the need or desire you will develop and the proposal you will make.
- consider a party’s probable attitudes along an imaginary scale from 1-9 with 1-3 being strongly positive, 4-6 being neutral, and 7-9 being strongly negative.
- if it’s position 1 or 2, little political effort may be require. if it’s on 8 or 9 than persuasion may be impossible beyond a small shift in feeling or thinking. if it’s a 4-6 you should be able to alter ways of thinking, feeling or acting with good persuasive effort. this may not be the case if an interviewee is strongly committed to remaining neutral, undecided or non-committed.
37
Q
Analyzing the Interviewee:
Values/Beliefs/Attitudes
continued
A
- persuasion theorists from Aristotle in ancient Greece to present day have claimed that the interviewee’s attitude toward the interview (ethos, credibility, image) is the most important determinant of success. you must assess the interviewees attitude toward you, your profession, and the org you represent. several dimensions determine your credibility including trustworthy/safe, competent/expert, goodwill, composure, and dynamic/energetic
- think of your previous experiences with this person. if an interviewee doesn’t like you, distrusts our org and/or sees your profession as dishonest, you must alter these attitudes during the interview.
- your appearance, attainments, personality, manner, composure, etc are important for maintaining high credibility.
- ppl tend to react more favorable to high credible interviewers who are similar to them in important ways and appear to share their values, beliefs, and attitudes.
- while they want interviewers to be similar to them they also expect them to be wiser, brave and more knowledgable, more experiences and more insightful.
38
Q
Analyzing the Interviewee:
Emotions
A
- emotions, sometimes called feelings and passion, significantly influence how ppl think, feel and act.
- along with values, emotions are “hot buttons” you need to discover and push if you hope to persuade.
- some emotions are necessary for survival including hate, fear, anger, love and sexual attraction. others are necessary for social involvement such as pride, shame, guild, sympathy, pity, humor, joy and sadness. you must be aware of the other party’s mood, why the party feels that way and how it is likely to affect the interview.
- with mood of the interviewee in mind along with topic, situation, and the purpose, determine which emotions you must appeal to in this interview.
- what then is the relationship btwn values, beliefs, attitudes and emotions in persuasive interviews?
- the process begins with values (our fundamental beliefs ab existence and behavior), which lead to specific beliefs (judgements ab what is probably true or believable), which form attitudes (organizations of relevant beliefs that predispose us to respond in particular ways), which may result in judgement or action towards a person, place, thing, idea, proposal and act.
- specific values and emotional appeals serve as triggering devices for judgement and actions. altering or reinforcing and interviewee’s thinking, feeling or acting is a complex process.
39
Q
Analyzing the Situation:
Atmosphere
A
- study carefully the atmosphere in which the interview will take place. know why the interview is occurring at this time: a regularly scheduled event, an emergency and moment of opportunity, and major event, a routine interaction, etc.
- will the climate be hostile, friendly, ambivalent, or apathetic?
- the “why” of the interview may vary significantly btwn parties
40
Q
Analyzing the Situation:
Timing
A
- timing may be critical. when is an ideal time to conduct an interview, when would it be too early or too late, what events have preceded this interview such as visits from competitors, etc.
- what events will take place following the interview, such as a competing fund-raiser, annual sale, or budget meeting?
- certain times of the year are great for some interviewers while terrible for others.
- timing may be everything
41
Q
Analyzing the Situation:
Physical Setting
A
- provide for privacy and control interruptions, especially telephone calls. make an appointment if it’s hard to guess how much time an interview will take.
- will you be the host of the interview/is it on your turf or in your office, are you a guest in which the interview is taking place on the interviewee’s turf, or is it occurring on neutral ground such as a conference room, hotel, etc.
- if you are trying to recruit a student for your university, you might prefer to get the interviewee on campus during a beautiful fall day, etc.
- a good physical setting can go a long way
42
Q
Analyzing the Situation:
Outside Forces
A
- outside influences may wage counter persuasive efforts
- organizational or professional policies may prescribe what you can and cannot do in a sales interview.
- you may be trying to convince a friend to attend your college while another college is recruiting this person with a full-ride scholarship, mom and dad want them to attend the same college they went to, etc.
- awareness of outside influences may determine how you open an interview, select appeals and evidence, develop proposals and address counterpersuasion
43
Q
Researching the Issue:
A
- be the best informed and most authoritative person in each interview
- investigate all aspects of a topic, including events that may have contributed to the problem, reasons for and against change, evidence on all sides of an issue, and possible solutions.
- search for solid up-to-date info
- the interviewee can demand support, challenge assumptions, generalizations or claims and ask for documentations of a source.
- impress parties by having answers to qs and being knowledgable. try to determine what the interviewee knows about an issue and attitudes held by the interviewee towards the issue and possible solutions.
- don’t overlook any potentially valuable sources of info such as the internet, emails, interviews, letters, pamphlets, surveys, unpublished studies, reports, newspapers, journals, gov. documents.
- use your own experience as research, know the sources available to interviewee.
44
Q
Researching the Issue: Types of Evidence
A
- gather and use a variety of evidence to support your need and proposal. collect examples, both factual and hypothetical to illustrate your points.
- ppl like good stories that make problems real. gather stats, collect statements from knowledgable authorities, look for comparisons and contrasts btwn situations, proposals, products and services.
- locate clear and supportable definitions for key terms and concepts.
- distinguish opinion from fact
- the effect of a well supported persuasive interview last longer than a poorly supported one.
45
Q
Planning the Interview:
Determine Your Purpose
A
- if you know the interviewee will be a hard sell bc of values, beliefs, and attitudes, then your purpose may be merely to influence thinking or feeling in a minor way. getting an interviewee to think about an action or to admit there is a problem may be a major success for a first interview. later you might move on to more significant change or support/action.
- in other situations you may move quickly through need and desire to solutions with a good chance of success.
- set a realistic goal for the interview. don’t assume that after one interview that person is not interested or will not change. some say it may take five contacts before a sale is made so be patient
46
Q
Planning the Interview:
Select Main Points
A
- don’t make the need too complicated. know the strength of each point and introduce it strategically
- select reasons to establish need or desire. don’t rely on a single reason bc the interviewee may see little urgency in a issue that is so simple or unidimensional or find it easy to reject or attack one point. more points also enhance the effectiveness of persuasion over time.
- six or eight points may make an interview too long and superficial as you rush through them all and may overload interview with info leading them to be confused or bored.
- after selecting 3-4 points, determine the strength of each for the situation and this will help determine the order in which you present the points.
- if there is a chance of running out of time or being rushed, present the strongest point first.
47
Q
Planning the Interview:
Develop Main Points
A
- develop each point into what the interviewee will see as valid and acceptable logic. carefully craft and blend the logical and psychological.
- you can argue from accepted belief, assumption or proposition which invovled three explicitly stated or implied assertions
- all students living in apartments should have renters insurance, you live in an apartment, point is you should have renters insurance.
- you need not state all three parts of this pattern if the interviewee is likely to provide the mission assertion or conclusion. regardless, your argument rests of the first assertion that is a critical belief, assumption or proposition. you can leave second or third assertion unstated.
- arguing from condition is based on the assertion that if something does or does not happen, something else will or will not happen.
- if you continue to drink and drive you are going to lose your license.
- you’re going to continue drinking and driving
- you’re going to lose your license.
- weigh conditions carefully and be able to support them effectively. as with arguing from accepted belief, you may invite the interviewee to fill in a missing part or parts.
48
Q
Planning the Interview:
Develop Main Points
continued
A
arguing from two choices is based on the assertion that there are only two possible proposals or course of action. you delete one by establishing that it will not work or resolve a problem, and conclude the obvious.
- you can take the p lane or drive to your interview in Philadelphia
- driving the 700 miles to Philadelphia will require you to miss the final exam in Psychology 495
- point: you should fly to Philadelphia
- the argument rests on being able to limit the choices and convincing the interviewee that one is unacceptable so yours is the only remaining.
- arguing from example leads to a generalization about a while class of people, places, things, or ideas from a sample of this class. for instance, an interviewer attempting to persuade a university administrator of the dangers of binge drinking on campus might use this argument:
- sample: in a recent survey of college students it was discovered that 69% of 500 respondents admitted to binge drinking
- point: the majority of students take part in binge drinking.
- your evidence must warrant your conclusion
- the quality of the sample, as in a survey interview, is critical in argument from example.
- arguing from cause-effect is related to example bc interviewers often use a sample as proof of a causal relationship. unlike the argument from example that leads to a generalization, this argument attempts to establish was caused a specific effect. for ex.:
- in a study of 100 auto accidents, police officers said that nearly a third occurred while drivers were texting, about the same as when drivers had been drinking
- point: texting while driving causes as many accidents as drinking alcohol and driving
- you must convince the other party that the evidence leads to the only or major cause of effect.
49
Q
Planning the Interview:
Develop Main Points
continued
A
- arguing from facts reaches a point that explains best a body of facts. this his how investigators argue when attempting to explain a phenomenon
- while investigating the storm damage caused in a two county area on 6/5, we noted that the storm had moved in a nearly straight line. in open areas, there was no evidence of a twisting motion in grass and weeds. tree s and small buildings were knocked down but not twisted. no one hear the tell-tale freight train sound of a tornado
- point: it’s obvious that the storm damage was the result of straight line winds and not a tornado.
- unlike argument from example, this interviewer in this case is arguing from a variety of facts, not a sample of a class of things.
- arguing from analogy occurs when you point out two things (people, places. objects, proposals, ideas) have important characteristics in common and draw a conclusion based on these similarities. for example, a coach might argue like this:
- points of comparison: like north side, west lake high has a veteran quarter back who is an excellent runner as well as a passer. their line is anchored by four seniors who are both large and fast. their pass defenders have made six interceptions this year. and they have a junior kicker who has made fields goals from as far as 46 yards
- point: West Lake High will be hard to beat, just like north side.
- the number of significant similarities are critical in developing and selling this argument.
50
Q
Planning the Interview:
Select Strategies
- Identification Theory
- Balance and Consistency Theory
- Inoculation Theory
- Induced Compliance Theory
- Psychological Reactance Theory
A
- once you have chosen main points and persuasive patterns, select psychological strategies to make them persuasive. a number of theories explain how you might bring about changes in thinking, feeling, and acting.
- these theories explain complex human activities through careful observation of what happens in the real world and may serve as persuasive strategies.
51
Q
Select Strategies - Identification Theory
A
- Kenneth Burke, arguably the leading rhetorical theorist of the 21st century claims that you persuade by identifying with the interviewee.
- strive to establish consubstantiality (a substantial similarity) with the interviewee.
- the overlapping circles representing the interview parties in our model in ch. 2 are based on Burke’s notion that to communicate or persuade, you must talk the other party’s language “with speech, gesture, tonality, order, image, attitude, and ultimately identifying” your ways with theirs.
- their are several ways to identify with a person and establish common ground:
- Associating with groups to which you both belong, shared cultural heritage or regional identification, programs you both support, etc.
- Disassociating from groups, cultures, regions or programs the interviewee opposed or is distant from.
- Develop appearance and visual symbols that establish identification such as dress, hairstyle, makeup, jewelry, political buttons, religious symbols, etc. appearances are important in perceiving common ground.
- Sharing language such as jargon, slang, colloquialisms, and in-group words and phrases.
- Employing content and values important to the interviewee.
- strive for real identification, not fabrication to initiate the change you desire.
52
Q
Select Strategies - Balance or Consistency Theory
A
- according this this theory, human beings strive for a harmonious existence with self (values, beliefs, and attitudes) and experience psychological discomfort (dissonance) when aspects of existence seem inconsistent or unbalanced.
- you may experience this source-proposition conflict when you like persons but detest their positions or issues or dislike persons but favor their products or services.
- you experience attitude-attitude conflict when you oppose government involvement in your life but want the government to outlaw hate speech and require prayer in public schools.
- you experience perception-perception conflict when you see Mexico as beautiful but dangerous place to vacation.
- you experience behavior-attitude conflict when you believe strongly in law and order but use a fake ID to get into bars.
- not all interviewees are happy with harmony
- an interviewer may create or resolve dissonance.
- you may create psychological discomfort (dissonance) by attacking a source or pointing out attitude, perception or behavioral conflicts. then you show how the interviewee can bring these inconsistencies into balance by providing changes in sources, attitudes, perceptions and behaviors.
- if you detect that an interviewee is experiencing psychological discomfort, you may bring about balance or consistency by helping the interviewee see no inconsistency, perceive the inconsistency as insignificant, or tolerate inconsistency.
53
Q
Select Strategies - Inoculation Theory
A
- according to this theory, it is more effective to prevent undesired persuasive effects from occurring than using damage control afterwards.
- for ex., a few years ago one of the authors receive a phone call from the state police warning him of solicitors who were claiming to be representatives of state police sponsored charity for children and relating what solicitors were telling contributors
- the called hoped the preemptive call would prevent the author from being victimized and maintain the credibility of legitimate police charities
- in this strategy, you forewarn the interviewee, perhaps by exposing the interviewee to small doses of a potential persuader’s language, arguments and evidence so the interviewee can resist the effort.
- or you might provide arguments and evidence the interviewee may use to mount and effective counter-effort if confronted by an interviewer against whom he or she is being immunized.
- an inoculation strategy immunizes an interviewee from future persuasions
54
Q
Select Strategies - Induce Compliance Strategy
A
- according to this theory, you may change an interviewer’s way of thinking, feelings or acting by inducing her or hum to engage in activities counter to values, beliefs or attitudes.
- participation in counter-activities may bring about self-persuasion
- apply enough pressure so an interviewee will comply without feeling there is no choice. feeling coerced may prevent change.
- variety of ways to induce compliance. you might induce an interviewee to espouse a belief or counter-attitude to understand or appreciate the other side of an issue, such as a liberal position of sex education or a conservative position on health care reform.
- you might induce an interviewee to take part in an unaccustomed or unattractive activity, such as going to a religious service or helping at a homeless shelter
- you might induce an interviewee to play an opposite role, such as a superior instead of subordinate, teacher instead of student, parent instead of child
- you might induce a party to act to receive a reward or avoid a punishment, such as tickets to a concert or speeding ticket.
- there are many ways to trigger self-persuasion
55
Q
Select Strategies - Psychological Reactance Theory
A
- according to this theory, ppl react negatively when someone threatens to restrict a behavior they want to engage in. they may value the restricted behavior more and want to engage in it more frequently
- people may devalue alternatives bc they feel they are truck with them and may resent the restricting agent.
- organizations produce limited editions of books, stamps, coins and cars to enhance demand for them.
- tickets to NCAA basketball final four are of great value bc they are scarce.
- interviewees may be less in favor of giving to the college development fund or joining their athletic booster clubs if they feel they are being forced.
- whenever possible, avoid real or perceived pressure on the other party to think, feel or act differently
- make your proposal attractive, make scarcity or a deadline known without appearing to threaten, develop a serious need without excessive appeals to fear and offer choices
- restricting behavior may lead to persuasion or resentment
56
Q
Opening: Gain Attention and Build Interest
A
- be flexible, adaptable and cautious about assumptions. you are conducting an interview, not giving a speech. plan how you will involve the interviewee throughout the interview.
- your opening must gain attention and interest, establish rapport and motivate interviewee to take part. the major advantage of the interview over public or mass persuasion is the chance to tailor your message to a single party.
- adapt the opening to each interviewee and setting. don’t rely on a standard/traditional formula
- when insufficient info is unavailable or you don’t have the chance to study interviewee ahead of time, use the first few mins of the interview to discover how you can best adapt to this person.
- take note of dress, appearance, manner. ask a few q’s designed to discover background, interests, and attitudes critical to this interview. listen to what the interviewee “says” verbally and nonverbally. if the party consists of more than one person, detect who is the leader or spokesperson
- the majority of persuasive interactions fail in the first few seconds, during the attention step in the opening, so choose your language and NV actions carefully. think of openings in sales calls made to your home and how you reacted. persuaders trying to convince you to give to a charity are often trained to recite a prescribed opening regardless of your age, gender, income, background or level of interest. you may dislike the charity; it makes no difference to the persuader.
little wonder that few of these “cold” calls succeed. - begin with a warm greeting and use the interviewee’s name if you have it. if the person is a stranger, do not make your greeting sound like a question but trying to guess their name. this suggests that you are unsure of the persons name or identity, unsure of yourself and not prepared.
57
Q
Opening: Gain Attention and Build Interest
A
- if you know the interviewee well and both the situation and your relationship warrant it, use the person’s first name. as a general rule, don’t greet a stranger, superior or person in a formal setting by first name or nickname unless you are asked to do so
- it may be necessary to introduce yourself (name position title background, etc), your organization (name location nature history products or services) and the purpose of the interview.
- you may begin with a sincere inquiry about family or mutual friends or small talk about weather, sports, construction or campus facilities. don’t prolong the rapport stage. be conscious of the interviewee’s situation and preferences.
- if the person replied immediately after the greeting “what can I do for you?” then you know this person wants to get down to business.
- cultures differ in the amount of acceptable small talk and socializing. most Americans want to get to the point and get the job done. Japanese and other cultures desire to get acquainted, to follow interaction rituals and to go slower in making commitments and decisions. do not prolong the rapport stage
- involve all members of the other party from the start so each person will play an active role throughout the interaction. American persuaders and persuadees, particularly male, tend to take turns unevenly during interactions and to speak at length during each turn. Japanese and others take turns evenly and make shorter statements.
- use the opening to create mutual interest in the interview and establish trust and degree of affection or liking between the parties. each party should understand the purpose of the interview and how they will share control.
- neither rush or prolong the opening
- reduce reticence by involving the interviewee immediately and often. the opening should be a good fit with the whole interview.
- if the opening fails, there may be no body and closing. do not use routine openings even for routine interviews.
