Exam 3 Flashcards
Knowledge is a unit of
semantic memory
A category is a _____ in _______
memory
group of related concepts , semantic
Categorization is the …
process of assigning a new piece information to one of these groups
Categories help us to …
identify objects
Categories confine ______ to a _______, thereby
making it _______ and more ______
recognition, smaller group of items, faster, accurate
Categories allow us to ignore the ….
variability between the
objects in a group
Our visual system is capable of discriminating about ________ different colors, yet we only use about _______
7 million, 7-10 colors
color categories allow us to ignore …..
subtle differences
in color
Categories ______ the need for ________
reduce, constant learning
Categorization frees us from the need to _______ of each _______
encode the detailed features , new object
categorization is also responsible for a lot of _______
memory errors
Definitional Approach
Define minimal criteria that an
object must have to be included in a category
Family Resemblance
Members of a category are
similar to each other in a large number of ways, but any
one way is not usually essential
Prototype Approach
New objects are compared to
each category’s prototype; objects are classified based on the best match
A prototype is the ….
average of a category s’ membership
the prototype is rarely an _______ of a
category
actual member
The prototype constantly ______ with each new _______ to the ______
changes, object added, category
when new objects match the prototype well …
high
prototypicality
when new objects do not match the prototype well ….
low prototypicality
Object Naming
Subjects are asked to name members of a given category, typical members
are named before less typical members.
Prototype Priming
Primed subjects with a color name then asked them to respond
whether two colors were
the same or different
In Prototype Priming, the reaction times were …
faster when the colors matched the
prime prototype
Feature Overlap Analysis
Subjects list attributes for
several objects under a category, then the experimenter
determines which objects have attributes in common
Category Verification Task
Subjects would see a category name, then shown a picture of a object. The task would be to indicate whether the object was a member of the category
In the Category Verification Task reaction times were _______ to objects rated as _______ to the category, compared to objects rated ________.
faster, highly typical, less typical
Hierarchical Organization of Categories
Superordinate (global) Level
Basic Level
Subordinate (specific) Level
Superordinate (global) Level is…
A very broad level of
categorization
Basic Level is ….
A middle level of categorization under the superordinate
Subordinate (specific) Level is …
Detailed categories under each basic
Categorization starts at the ______ in this hierarchy
basic level
Verification times were fastest at the ….
basic level
Using a naming task, found that subjects name objects at the ….
basic level
babies first start to say words at
the ….
basic level
Tanaka & Taylor had _____ and ________ do an _______ for a variety of categories, including birds
bird experts, non-experts, object naming task
Bird experts named birds at the _______ whereas non-experts used the ______
subordinate level, basic level
Experts organize information so as to enable ________ to their domain of ________
preferential access, expertise
A “good” category should have two features …..
- members of a category should share lots of attributes with each other
- members of one category should not share attributes with the members of a different category
superordinate level is good at satisfying the
“minimal overlap”
superordinate level is bad in that its members don’t have ……
many attributes in common
subordinate level is good in that its members have ….
lots of attributes in common
subordinate level is bad at satisfying the ….
minimal overlap criterion
the basic level finds a ________ between most members having ________ , and having _______
happy medium, many attributes in common, minimal overlap with other categories
subjects were able to list an ________ common attributes at the _______
average of 9, basic level
Information is organized into a ….
hierarchy of concepts
_____ are connected by
_______, Attached to each _____
are ________
“Nodes”, “links”, node, “properties”
The properties attached to a node apply to that ______ and
__________
node, every linked node under it
Cognitive economy is…
- Properties are only represented once
- lower nodes inherit properties from
higher nodes
The properties attached to _______ nodes do not necessarily apply to linked nodes_______ in the hierarchy
lower, higher
A ________, combined with the _________ is a very _______ method of
representing information
hierarchical organization, principle of cognitive economy, efficient
In order to retrieve information the _______ must be navigated
hierarchy
Hierarchical Model assumes that in order to _________ you must be ________ in which the information resides
retrieve information, at the node
if a property listed at a higher node
is ________ for a linked _________ then an __________ must be listed at the _________
not true, lower node, exception, lower node
Information retrieval times and movement times are …..
additive
A property must be retrieved for
…….
verification
Verification does not require
…….
property retrieval
Reaction times increase with the __________ also increase when a __________
number of levels moved, property retrieval operation is needed
Hierarchical Model didn’t account for ________ , also some verification
results ________ predictions
typicality effects , contradicted
Spreading Activation Model & Hierarchical Model similarities
assume that processing passes along links between concepts, and that this takes time
spreading activation model is ______ hierarchical
not
In the Spreading Activation Model, properties can now be represented at ….
multiple places in the knowledge structure
In the Spreading Activation Model, the _______ is _________ strictly enforced
principle of cognitive economy, not
In the Spreading Activation Model, there are no longer any________ attached to _______
property lists, concepts
In the Spreading Activation Model, Once a concept is ______
this ________ spreads to all
________
activated, activation , linked concepts
In the Spreading Activation Model, Short links represent ______ than longer links
stronger connections
In the Spreading Activation Model, the ______ attached to a concept, the ______ the amount of _______
spreading from that concept
down each link
more links, smaller, activation
In the Spreading Activation Model, Activations _________ from the system over time
disappear
In the Spreading Activation Model, If spreading activation results in one concept becoming active above some threshold ….
you will “think” of that concept
In the Spreading Activation Model, Activation will then flow from that concept to _______, causing the ________ and our thoughts to __________.
all other linked concepts, process to continue, flow from one thing to another
Priming is …
When exposure to some object or event improves processing of some later object or event
Repetition Priming is…
When processing something a second time benefits from having processed it previously
Associative Priming is…
When processing something benefits
from having processed something related previously
In repetition priming an item is processed _______, in associative priming a specific item is processed ______.
twice, once
Lexical Decision Task is…
Subject has to report whether
a string of letters is a valid English word
Meyer & Schvaneveld Used a ________; Manipulated whether the words were ________
modified lexical decision task, associated or not
Reaction times were ______ for the associated words compared to the ________ words
faster, unassociated
The modified lexical decision task results were interpreted as direct evidence for _________, and indirect
evidence for __________
associative priming, spreading activation
activation spreads between the
__________, making the
verification of each _______
associated words, easier
________ underlies the currently popular __________ of knowledge representation
Spreading activation, neural network models
In the neural network model, _______ are represented by __________
Concepts, patterns of activity across nodes
In the neural network model, ________ are captured by how activity ____________.
Associations, spreads from one concept to another concept
Mental Imagery is …
Our ability to create a sensory
experience in the absence of an actual stimulus
Mental imagery engages _______, _________, ________, and _________ to construct the experience
perception, attention, STM, LTM
These mental images can be about _________ events or ________.
remembered, complete fabrications
Huge individual differences in ….
mental imagery ability
Propositional Representation ….
uses abstract symbols or factual knowledge
Depictive Representation …
information represented as a picture that can be scanned
Which representation we use depends on ….
what we are trying to do
Using maps often involves a _______ to reason about ______.
depictive representation, spatial relationships
Shepard & Metzler Showed subjects ________ and asked them _________.
pairs of block objects, if they were the same or different
Shepard & Metzler experiment prediction, If the objects were represented using a ________, then __________ should produce longer __________.
depictive code, larger angular separations, reaction times
Shepard & Metzler experiment results, reaction times _______ with the _________ between the objects
increased, angular separation
In the Shepard & Metzler experiment Subjects were solving this task by ….
mentally rotating one object until it matched the other
the speed of the mental rotation operation is about …
40 degrees per second
Kosslyn had subjects ________, then to _________ of it and _______. Subjects then answered a question about another object either _____ or ______ from their _________.
study a picture, form a mental image, “look” at a particular part, Near, Far , starting point
Kosslyn experiment prediction: If imagery is _______ like ______ then RTs
should be ______ to questions about _____ things due to __________.
spatial, perception, longer, far, subjects having to scan over a greater distancE
Kosslyn experiment results: Subjects took ________ to respond to _____ objects than to ______ objects.
longer, far, near
According to the Kosslyn experiment, a mental image is ______. We “scan” a _______ just like we would scan an ______.
spatial, mental image, actual
picture
It takes _______ to move our inner “eyes” to ________, just as it would our actual eyes.
slightly longer, more distant things
According to Pylyshyn,
Subjects may be using their ________ of how physical systems work to _________ their behavior during a ________.
tacit knowledge, implicitly guide, mental imagery task
Subjects know that it should take ______ to scan between two objects as their distance ________, they
were ________ making their behavior ______ to this relationship
longer, increases, unconsciously, conform
Finke & Pinker experiment, subjects would see a _________, followed by an _______. Their task was to indicate whether the __________.
display of dots, arrow, arrow pointed to one of the dots
Finke & Pinker results, time that subjects took to make their
judgment ________ with the _________ in the previous display
increased, distance between the arrow tip and a dot
Finke & Pinker concludes that subjects formed a _________ of the _________, then scanned from the …..
mental image, dot display, arrow to see if it hit a dot
Finke & Pinker experiment Argued __________ because subjects had no reason to…….
against tacit knowledge, believe that distance was relevant to the task
LeBihan experiment, Subjects were either _________ or asked to ________. ________ was used to measure ________ in _________ under each condition
shown an object, imagine the object, fMRI, brain activation, visual cortex
LeBihan experiment results, visual cortex activates when ……
seeing or just imagining an object
Bisiach & Luzzatti experiment had subjects with ________ imagine standing at a certain location in a famous piazza, and to _______ the buildings ________
visual neglect, describe, that they “saw”
LeBihan experiment conclusion, imagery ________ the same
brain areas used in _______; not what
you would expect from a _______.
activates, perception, propositional code
People with visual neglect ignore or
neglect visual information that appear in their _______ due to _______ to their _______.
left visual field, injury, right parietal cortex
Bisiach & Luzzatti experiment results, Subjects only described
the buildings that would have….
appeared in their right visual field
When asked to imagine viewing the object from the_________, they described the buildings that they ….
opposite direction, had previously ignored
Dual Code Theory is…
Some words in a memory experiment can just be coded propositionally others can be coded both propositional and pictorial codes
Reality Monitoring is..
a technique for dissociating memories for real events from memories of imagined events
Johnson experiment had two groups of subjects, ______ and _______. Task was to_______ these items, but they were also asked to _______ when seeing just the word. They were then given a _______ and asked to ….
“good imagers”, “bad imagers”, remember, create a mental image, surprise test, estimate how often they had seen the pictures
Johnson experiment prediction, good imagers would find it ______ to give an accurate estimate of pictures because they would get ……
harder, confused as to whether they had seen an object or just imagined it
Johnson experiment results, Good imagers were more likely to _______ compared to the _______
overestimate how often they had seen pictures, poor imagers
Language is defined as a ….
collection of symbols, and the rules for combining these symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages
A language is _______, we use sounds and words as ______ for things out in the world
symbolic, symbols
A language is ______, we use _____ to combine these symbols so that other people who know these ______ can _______ out of what we are saying
structured, rules, rules, make sense
A language is ______, we can combine a ______ number of words to make an ________ number of sentences.
generative, limited, unlimited
The Association Theory states …..
We rely on learned associations between words to construct sentences
But people can’t possibly have ______ between _________; there are just _______. Also people often _______ sentences for which they have
never been ______.
associations, all word combinations, too many, generate, reinforced
The Grammar Theory states …..
We learn a system of rules, called a grammar, that enables us to generate
an infinite number of correct sentences in a language
Once you learn a ________, making a new sentence is as simple as ……
grammar frame, plugging in the right word types in the right places
Broca’s Aphasia is defined as an ….
inability to speak in grammatically correct sentences
With Broca’s Aphasia, the words may be _______, but there is no …..
meaningful, subject-verb-object grammatical structure
Wernicke’s Aphasia is defined as an…
inability to speak in meaningful sentences
With Wernicke’s Aphasia, the sentences are _______, but they carry _______.
grammatically correct, no meaning
Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasias result from damage to ______ regions of the ____ hemisphere of the brain. These disorders tell us that grammar and meaning are _______ of a ______.
two different, left, separate components, language
Morphemes are the ….
smallest units of a language that have
a definable meaning or grammatical function
______ and ______ are both morphemes because both carry ______.
Root words, suffixes, meaning
Morphemes allow us to create new words by ….
modifying or adding meaning to root words
Grammatical rules exist for how to combine ______ into ______. Once we know these rules we can make a
word _________ without someone teaching us
morphemes, words, plural or past tense
State the Three Stages of Morpheme Acquisition ….
1) No combination of morphemes; root words are just strung together
2) Memorization of the irregular verbs
3) Learning grammatical rules
_______ happen when standard grammatical rules are applied to _______.
Mistakes, irregular words
Phonemes are the ….
basic sounds of a language from which morphemes and words are built
Changing one phoneme can …..
change the meaning of a word
The individual phoneme doesn’t ….
convey meaning
A morpheme is the basic unit of ______ in a language, and the phoneme is the basic unit of ______ in a language.
meaning, sound
There are _____ phonemes in English, with ______ corresponding to the consonant sounds and ______ corresponding to vowel sounds
37, 24, 13
Each language has its own set of ….
phonemes
Phoneme Recognition is how …
Just as visual object recognition is made difficult by noisy inputs, so too is the recognition of phonemes in speech
just as _______ assists visual object recognition, ______ also helps phoneme recognition
top-down context, context
Warren experiment, presented listeners with a sentence but erased ________ by introducing a cough sound. The task was to …..
one phoneme, report where in the sentence the cough occurred
In the Warren experiment, not only did subjects ________ of the cough, they often ______ that a ______.
not correctly report the position, didn’t notice, phoneme was missing
Phoneme Restoration Effect is a ….
phoneme that is missing from the auditory signal and gets “restored” by top-down knowledge and context
Adults are impaired in ________ which makes it hard to ______.
recognizing phonemes that don’t exist in their native language, learn other languages as adults
The “perceptual magnet” is ________ that we acquire over the course of ________.
phoneme prototypes, language development
Before the age of _____, human infants can tell the _______
between all the ________ that make up all _______
one, difference, phonemes, languages
The brain becomes ______ to respond best to speech sounds that are in our ________. After about _______ we ______ our ability to differentiate sounds that _______, resulting in the ________ in phoneme recognition
“tuned”, environment, six months, lose, we don’t hear, adult impairment
A “slip of the tongue” is when …
you mean to say one thing but something else comes out of your mouth
we develop ________ for the phonemes in our ________. This allows us to easily ______ our ______ phonemes, but this _______ us from perceiving phonemes for which we _______.
prototypes, native language, recognize, native, prevents, don’t have prototypes
Speech errors usually occur within a ______, not _______.
level, between
List the Three Types of Exchange Errors ….
1) Word Exchanges
2) Morpheme Exchanges
3) Phoneme Exchanges
Word Exchange Speech Error Example …
intend to say: I gave the bone to the dog.
instead say: I gave the dog to the bone
Morpheme Exchange Speech Error Example …
intend to say: The dog is getting fat
instead say: The dog is fatting get
Phoneme Exchange Speech Error Example ….
intend to say: the brown dog
instead say: the down brog
These speech errors provide psycholinguists with an _______; like _______, a lot can be learned about a system by how it makes ______.
opportunity to understand language, visual illusions, errors
Language Comprehension is …..
making sense out of the words we are hearing or reading
Ambiguous sentences can ….
interfere with comprehension
Phonemic Ambiguity is when ….
different words or phrases sound the same
Lexical Ambiguity is when a ….
word can have multiple meanings
Syntactic Ambiguity is regarding …
the function of a word in a sentence
Pragmatic Ambiguity is when ……
sentences can be interpreted in different ways
Swinney & Hakes studied how the _______ of a story changed the effect of these ________ on ________.
context, ambiguities, comprehension
Swinney & Hakes experimental method, subjects heard _______ of a passage and had to _____ when they heard a particular ______. Also a ______ condition in which the same
passage was made ______.
two versions, indicate, phoneme, control, unambiguous
Swinney & Hakes experiment results, subjects took ______ to detect the _______ when it was followed by an _______ word compared to an _______ word.
longer, phoneme, ambiguous, unambiguous
Swinney & Hakes then modified the passage so that the _____ would
be able to ______ the ______.
context, resolve, lexical ambiguity
When the sentence context ________, subjects were able to respond to the que more _____.
clarified the meaning of the word, quickly
Both meanings of an ______ initially become ______, but ______ kicks in
(after about ______) and ________ the _______ meaning.
ambiguous word, active, context, 800 msec, suppresses, inappropriate
A Lexical Decision Task is to …..
press a button indicating whether a letter string forms a valid English word
Swinney & Hakes then modified the passage where it was either _______ or ______ with the word being judged in the ______.
consistent, inconsistent, lexical decision task
Gernsbacher, found that when _____ readers see an _______ word ….
poor, ambiguous, both meanings remain active even after 1 second
Poor readers are _____ able to ________ word meanings, which leads to ________ and ______.
less, suppress inappropriate, confusion, reduced
comprehension
Activating only one meaning would make sense if the ______ always came _______ the _______ word, but
……
context, before, ambiguous, context can also come after
Although activation of _______ may create ______, it _______ the likelihood of _______ resolving the _______.
multiple meanings, confusion, increases, context, ambiguity
There is a tradeoff between ________, and ________ the sentence
momentary confusion, misinterpreting
When you screw up the _____
interpretation of a sentence, and have to _______, is called ______.
initial, go back and reinterpret it, repair
Miyake, Just, & Carpenter believed, _______ can be _______ if multiple _______ are kept ______ in memory. The more meanings you can keep _______, the better the chance of _______ the ______ using _______.
Time-consuming repairs, minimized, meanings, active, active, resolving, ambiguity, context
Miyake, Just, & Carpenter, found that …….
poor readers tend to have a smaller STM capacity
Two factors can make someone a poor reader ….
1) Taking too long to suppress inappropriate meanings
2) Keeping too few meanings active (due to a limited STM capacity), resulting in repairs
When no _______ info is available we have to ______ the meaning of an ________ word, but some ________
are _______ than others
contextual, guess, ambiguous, guesses, better
People assume the more _______ meaning of an _______ word
common or frequent, ambiguous
Word frequency is defined as …..
how frequently a word is used in our vocabulary
Subjects’ ________ are monitored as they are reading an _______. The device used is called an ……
eye movements, ambiguous sentence, eye tracker
Regression is defined as ……
looking back to a word read previously in a sentence
Regression is often an expression of ……..
repair or error recovery
Sentence presented: The port was a great success for merchants relying on tourism
Because “seaport” is the more _______ interpretation of the _______ “port”, the rest of the sentence about “merchants” and tourism ________ (no need for _______).
common, ambiguous, makes sense, repair
Sentence presented: The port was a great success when served at the dinner party
“Port” is again interpreted as ______, but when the subject gets to the word ______ the sentence _______. Gaze goes back to ______ in order to ________ the sentence.
“seaport”, “served”, no longer makes sense, “port”, reinterpret
Eye movements allow people to ________ the relationship between _______ and ________ and the process of ________ sentences
study directly, word frequency, lexical ambiguity, repairing
Eye tracking has also been used to study …..
syntactic ambiguity
Properties of a decision include ….
1) Mutually exclusive alternatives
2) Future consequences / different courses of action
3) Different values
Expected Value is the …..
average cost of winning + average cost of losing
St. Petersburg Paradox -> the assumption is the casino has _______
unlimited resources,
St. Petersburg Paradox Example: Toss a _____ coin. If tail appears game _____. If heads appears 1st time you get _____, after that for every heads the pot is _____. How much ______ you pay the casino for ______ that game?
fair, ends, 2$, doubled, would/should, entering
Expected Utility Theory states most people don’t behave according to a …..
normative model
Expected Utility Theory : we need to modify the idea of ______ in order to account for ______ = ______
expected value, real human behavior, Subjective expected utility
Subjective Expected Utility is the ______ that an outcome or activity _______ to an individual
value, actually has
Subjective Expected Utility Example: a gain of 10$ for a kid is _____, but _____ for an adult
a lot, not
People are risk _____ in the domain of ______
averse, gains
People are risk ______ in the domain of _____
seeking, losses
risk averse is to ….
go for the sure thing
risk seeking is to ….
try not to lose
People do not behave …..
normatively
A _____ of a given size is more painful than a _____ of the ______ size is pleasurable
loss, gain, same
Cumulative Prospect Theory is a _______ approach
descriptive
Cumulitive Prospect Theory describes how people make _______ when presented with alternatives that involve ______, _______, and _______.
decisions, risk, probability, uncertainty
Risk Aversion/ Seeking is a _______ approach
descriptive
Loss Aversion is a ______ approach
descriptive
Heuristic Biases are ______ approaches
prescriptive
Heuristics is why some people make ….
judgement errors
______ in judgments reveal some heuristics of _______ under ______
Biases, thinking, uncertainty
3 Heuristics include ……
1) Representativeness Heuristic
2) Availability Heuristic
3) Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
Representative Heuristic is the ______ of something is determined by the extent to which it seems _____ to its ______ and/or seems to ______ the ______ of how it was generated
subjective probability, similar, parent population, reflect, salient characteristics
Representativeness Heuristic Biases include …
– The Gambler’s Fallacy
– The Conjunction Fallacy
– Base Rate Neglect
– Ignoring the sample size
Gambler’s Fallacy is _____ a sequence as more ______ than another
misjudging, “random”
With Gambler’s Fallacy there is a belief that an ______ that hasn’t happened yet and is _____.
outcome, “due”
Base Rate Neglect is when people are ______ base rates and relying on the ______
ignoring, representativeness
heuristic
With Base Rate Neglect, people _____ to consider the overall ______ of something.
fail, likelihood or frequency
Conjunction Fallacy is the belief that it is more ______ that two events occur ______ then for one event to occur ______.
probable, together, alone
Base Rate Neglect is a major problem in …
medical diagnosis
Decision-making is _____ amongst ______
choosing, alternatives
Availability Heuristic is classified as
judjment
Availability Heuristic is estimating ______ from the ______ with which instances come to ______.
probability, ease, mind
With Availability Heuristic the _____ of recall is sometimes a good _____ to ______, but _____ always
ease, clue, probability, not
Availability Heuristic: we base ______ estimates on how ______ it is to ______ examples
frequency, easy, retrieve
Availability Heuristic: ______ leads to overestimation
familiarity
Anchoring & Adjustment Heuristic is driven by ______ that are generally ______, and the initial ______ bias the _______
adjustments, inadequate, anchors, estimate
Common argument is that people are biased because they use ______ that often work _____, but sometimes ______.
heuristics, well, do
not
Using heuristics is argued to be _____ and ______
fast, “easy”
