Exam 2 Flashcards
Memory is defined as…
processes involved in the encoding, retaining, retrieval, and use of information about images, events,
ideas, and skills after the original information is gone.
Duration is defined as…
how long information can be held
Capacity is defined as…
how much information can be held
Control Processes are…
system specific processes affecting
duration and capacity.
The Modal Memory Model consist of…
Sensory Memory
STM
LTM
Sensory Memory Stage is the ….
initial stage holding raw information
for a very short time
Short-term Memory stage is the
intermediate stage holding
4-7 things for 15-30 secs.
Short-term Memory mediates ________ and holds _______
ongoing tasks, current thoughts
Long-term Memory stage …
holds unlimited information
for an unlimited time
Describe the Whole Report Task …
flash up 12 letters for 50 msec, then ask a person to report back as many as they can
Describe the Partial Report Task
12 letters are again flashed for 50
msec, but now subjects report back only a cued row
For the Whole Report Task subjects could only report back about _____ of the _____ letters
4.5, 12
In the Partial Report Task there is a _______ between the offset of the ______ and the presentation of
the ________
delay, letter array, tone cue
The Partial Report Task shows, As the delay between array offset and the tone _______, subjects reported back_______.
increased, fewer letters
Visual sensory memory has a ________, but it has a _________, only about _______.
very high capacity, very short duration, ½ second
Conclusion of Report Tasks, is our _______ from a ________ is limited by ________, not _______
ability to report letters , brief
display, sensory memory, recognition
Iconic Memory is …
A visual sensory memory system that
can hold a lot of unprocessed visual information for about ½ second
Echoic Memory is an ….
auditory sensory memory system
that can hold sound information for about 2 seconds
Sensory Memory probably helps recognition by _________, thereby giving ________ a chance to _________.
freezing information in time, recognition, attach meaning to patterns
STM ________ new incoming info from ________ and _______, and retrieves info from ________.
integrates, sensory memory, recognition, long-term memory
Forgetting from STM is due to the _______ of information from memory in the …….
rapid loss, absence of rehearsal
By rehearsing information you can …
retain it indefinitely
Peterson & Peterson experiment, To measure the _______ of STM in the _________ they used a __________.
duration, absence of rehearsal, “counting backwards” recall task
The Peterson & Peterson experiment concluded that, if ________ is prevented, information in _______ will
_______ after about _________.
rehearsal, STM, fade away, 20 seconds
In the Peterson & Peterson experiment, probability of correctly
recalling the letters ________ as the retention interval _________.
decreased, increased
Peterson & Peterson experiment, a _________ prevented _______. After, subject had to _____ the letter they were presented.
retention interval, rehersal, recall
Decay Theory states ….
Information in STM fades away over
time; the memory trace gets weaker until it is gone
Interference Theory states…..
Other perceptual and cognitive
events during the retention interval interferes with what you are trying to remember
The Decay Theory and Interference Theory can both explain …..
Peterson & Peterson results
Keppel and Underwood ________ the data from ________.
Re-analyzed, Peterson & Peterson
Keppel and Underwood discovered that memory for letters on _________ interfered with memory for the __________.
previous trials, letters on the current trial
Proactive Interference (PI) is …..
Confusing previously learned material with what you are trying to remember
Retroactive Interference (RI) is …..
Confusing more recently learned material with what you are trying to remember
When old information in memory interferes with the recall of
newer information ?
Proactive Interference
When newer information in memory interferes with the recall of older information ?
Retroactive Interference
Evidence points to ________ as being the reason why we ________ from ______.
interference, forget things, STM
______ doesn’t cause you to forget things its’ the _________ that interferes with your memory
Time, stuff that happens during
STM is limited by _________ to only about ________ in the _________.
interference, 20 seconds, absence of rehearsal
Memory capacity refers to the ….
number of things that refers to the
can be correctly remembered with this limit depending on the type of information and its susceptibility to interference
The Digit Span Task is meant to …..
measure the number of digits that a person can recall
The Digital Span Task concluded that our memory span is ….
5-9 things
But memory capacity can be ________ by getting help from ________ via a process called _________.
increased, long-term memory, “chunking”
More recent work using a __________ estimates memory span at only _______.
change detection task, 4 things
Chunking is the …..
grouping of info to form meaningful units
A Chunk is a ….
set of things that are strongly associated with each other but weakly associated with things in other chunks
STM capacity should be measured in ________, not _______.
“chunks”, individual units
Chase & Simon, studied _______ and ________ using _______.
STM capacity, chunking, chess
In the Chase & Simon experiment, when chess pieces were _______ arranged on the board, master and novice subjects recalled the _______.
randomly, same number
In the Chase & Simon experiment, concluded that chess masters chunk pieces into _________ and therefore process chess information in a ________.
more meaningful units, qualitatively different way
Although STM capacity is limited to only _____ things, if these things are in _______ then vastly _________ can be processed
4, chunks, more information
Memory Code is the ….
form in which information is represented in memory
Sensory memory uses an ______ or _____ code which works well for________, but it wouldn’t help us to do _______.
iconic, echoic, recognition, STM tasks
Acoustic Representations are …..
Speech-like code important for reading and thinking
Semantic Representations are….
Meaning-based code that is important for both STM and LTM (but mainly LTM)
Visual Representations are …..
Processed visual information; colors, shapes, and their spatial inter relationships
Inner Speech is the …..
“voice” inside your head when you read or think (also called “subvocalization”)
Conrad experiment, if STM representations are _______ then there should be more _______ when list items _______.
acoustic, memory errors, sound alike
In the Conrad experiment, Letters that ________ were more ________ than_______.
sounded the same, easily confused, letters that sounded different
Working Memory (WM) is a ….
A limited-capacity system for the temporary storage and manipulation of information for complete tasks
Working Memory differs from STM in that it emphasizes the _________ of this ________, not just how it is ______.
manipulation and coordination, information, stored
The Working Memory Model consists of 3 separate but interacting components …..
1.Central Executive
2. Visuospatial Sketch Pad
3. Phonological Loop
Central Executive is the ….
“boss”, coordinates the slave
systems to perform some task
Phonological Loop is ……
Important for remembering and
using auditory information
Visuospatial Sketch Pad is …..
Important for visual imagery
and the mental manipulation of visual information
The Phonological Loop consist of 2 parts …..
- Phonological Store
- Articulatory Control Process
Phonological Store …..
holds speech-like info for about 2 sec
Articulatory Control Process …… (2 roles)
- translates visual information into a speech-like code and moves this to the phonological store
- refreshes the memory traces being held in the phonological store
If the information is _________ faster than it can be ________ then information will be _____; opposite will be true for ________
decaying, refreshed, lost, maintained
Phonological Similarity Effect is ……
Memory is worse for items that sound alike than for items that sound different
Baddeley explained the Phonological Similarity Effect in terms of interference in the ________; more interference for more ________.
phonological store, similar items
Once the _________ translates information into a ________, it becomes susceptible to _________.
articulatory control process, speech-like code, phonological interference
The phonological similarity effect shows up regardless of whether stimuli are presented …….
visually or auditorially
Articulatory Suppression Effect is ….
Worse memory when an irrelevant word is repeated during a retention interval
Articulatory suppression ties up the _________ and prevents information from being ________. In the absence of ______, information fades after ______, leading to _______.
articulatory control process, recycled through the phonological loop, recycling, 2 secs, poor memory
Articulatory suppression blocks the phonological similarity effect for ______, but not for _______.
visual stimuli, auditory stimuli
Repeating a word prevents the articulatory control process from translating _______ into ________; this
translation step ______ needed for ________ presented items
visual codes, phonological codes, isn’t, auditorially
Irrelevant Speech Effect is when….
Memory is best if material is learned in a quiet setting, without background noise
Irrelevant visual information doesn’t ________ as much because the ________ doesn’t translate it into a _______.
interfere, articulatory control process, speech-like code
Irrelevant speech is _______ and therefore goes directly into the ________ where it can ________ with other information
acoustic, phonological store, interfere
The _______ you can pronounce a word, the more times you
can _______ it through the ________ within a given period of time.
faster, rehearse, phonological loop
Word Length Effect is how ….
Short words are easier to remember than long words
The more times a word is _______ through the _______ the better it is ________.
rehearsed, phonological loop, remembered
Long-term Memory (LTM) is defined as ….
An archive of information about past events and things that we have learned
LTM has unlimited ….
duration & capacity
The ______ that is needed to _____ info comes from _____.
“meaning”, chunk, LTM
_____ acts as the “gatekeeper” for LTM, affecting what …..
STM, goes in and out
Maintenance Rehearsal is …
Repeating information using your inner speech in order to maintain it in STM
______ information is held in STM, the more ______ it is to be transferred into ______.
longer, likely, LTM
In a Serial Recall Task, subjects are presented with a ________, then have to ______ the items in the ______ that they were presented
list of items one after the other, recall, order
Plotting the results from a serial recall task gives a ….
serial position curve
A serial position curve plots the probability of …..
correctly recalling an item as a function of its serial position in a list
Primacy Effect is ….
Better recall for items presented early in a list
Recency Effect is ….
Better recall for items presented later in a list
Items in the middle list positions are ……
generally harder to remember
Primacy is caused by …..
rehearsal moving items from STM into LTM
Early list items tend to be rehearsed a lot _____ than later list items
more
rehearsal ______ with _______ serial position
declines, increasing
Recency is _____ caused by rehearsal. Recency is _______ when rehearsal is at its ______.
not, strongest, lowest
Recency benefits appear for list items …..
still in STM
Items in STM are more likely to be
_______, leading to the ……
reported, recency benefit
If recency is _____ to STM, and STM only lasts for about ______ (without rehearsal), then _______ the recall
task beyond _______ should ________.
due, 30 seconds, delaying, 30 secs, reduce recency
When items in STM are caused to ______, then _______ disappears
fade, recency
Amnesia is defined as …
Damage to the brain resulting in impaired memory for events occurring either before or after the damage
Retrograde Amnesia is …
forgetting what was learned BEFORE the event causing the amnesia
Anterograde Amnesia is ….
forgetting what was learned AFTER the event causing the amnesia
With Anterograde Amnesia, you can’t form …..
new long term memories
STM is ________ in both forms of amnesia. Shows that these are ______ memory systems
unimpaired, two different
Explicit Memory is ……
memory for events or knowledge that you are conscious of.
Implicit Memory is ……
expressed without conscious awareness; your behavior indicates memory
Explicit Memory consists of …..
1) Episodic Memory
2) Semantic Memory
Semantic Memory is ….
your general knowledge of facts
Episodic Memory is ….
memory for personal events
Implicit Memory consists of …….
1) Procedural Memory
2) Priming
Procedural Memory is …..
for actions or skills; how to do
things
Priming is when the …..
presentation of something changes the future response to that same thing.
Two types of Priming ……
1) Repetition Priming
2) Conceptual Priming
Repetition Priming is when the
priming stimulus and the test stimulus are either the same or very similar
Priming is often studied using a ……
word fragment task
Conceptual Priming is when the …….
priming and test stimuli are different but related by category, function, or association
Warrington & Weiskrantz, subjects had _______ amnesia and their task was _______.
anterograde, picture fragment completion
Warrington & Weiskrantz experiment showed that despite having no _______ for the previous tests, subjects showed steady ______
over days. Evidence for a _______
between _______ and _______
memory, improvement, dissociation, explicit, implicit memory (priming)
Encoding is …..
acquiring info and transferring it into LTM
Rehearsal is …..
A process important for transferring info from STM to LTM
There are two types of Rehearsal …..
1) Maintenance Rehearsal
2) Elaborative Rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal is defined as …….
repeating information using your
inner speech for the purpose of maintaining it in STM
Maintenance Rehearsal ______ the probability that info will be transferred from ______ to _____, but is not very _______.
increases, STM, LTM, effective or efficient
Elaborative Rehearsal is defined as …..
making connections between the
meaning of what you are trying to remember, and information already existing in your LTM
with Elaborative Rehearsal _______ associations allow information to be ________ transferred from _____ to _____
meaning-based, efficiently, STM, LTM.
Good memory depends on how ______ information is _______; the ______ the ______, the better the ______.
“deeply”, encoded, deeper, encoding, retrieval
Three types of memory codes include ……
1) Structural Code
2) Phonemic Code
3) Semantic Code
Phonemic Code ……
emphasizes how a word sounds
Structural Code ……
emphasizes the physical properties of a word
Semantic Code ……
meaning of a word
Structural Code is the ……
most shallow form of encoding
Phonemic Code is a …..
medium level of encoding
Semantic Code is the …..
deepest level of encoding
Maintenance Rehearsal is an _______ method of remembering information because it relies on a fairly _______ level of processing (_______ code)
inefficient, shallow, phonemic
Rehearsal is beneficial to memory to the extent that it …….
induces a deeper level of processing
Elaborative Rehearsal is more ______ because the information is coded at the deeper ______ level of processing
efficient, semantic
Rhyming question encourages a …..
deeper phonemic code
Capital Letter question encourages a ……
shallow structural code
Sentence Fit question encourages a ……
very deep semantic code
Craik and Tulving: subjects performed these ______ tasks without trying to ______ the list items into _____, then they were given a surprise _______ on the words
three, encode, memory, recognition test
Craik and Tulving: The _____ that information is encoded in _____ depends on how the information was ______.
level, LTM, used
Craik and Tulving results: memory
was better for the ______ task than the _______ task, and better from
the _______ task than the ______ task.
fill-in-the-blank, rhyming, rhyming, capital letter
Craik and Tulving: presented evidence for the ______. Memory ______ with ______.
levels of processing approach, improves, deeper processing
Circular Logic demonstrates that there is no ______ of depth of
processing; the measure is tied to
_______.
independent measure, memory performance
Critique of the Levels of Processing Approach includes ….
Circular Logic
To study more effectively -> _______: you ______ the number of _______ between it and things already in _______
elaborate, increase, associations, LTM
Craik and Tulving (1975) Elaborated Method: used _____ types of sentences that differed in their degree of _______. In a study phase,
subjects had to ______ how well a ______ word fit into one of these _______. After many trials, subjects were given a ______.
three, elaborative detail, rate, target, sentences, cued recall test
Normal Recall is when a subject has to ……
report back all the target words
Cued recall is when a subject has to ……
report back the words, only now they are given a cue to help them retrieve these words
Craik and Tulving (1975) elaborated experiment results: words associated with more _______ were better ______
elaborated sentences, recalled
Craik and Tulving (1975) elaborated experiment results: ______ results in better memory than ______
cued recall, non-cued recall
Interaction is defined as the ……
effect of one variable depends on another variable
Craik and Tulving (1975) elaborated experiment results: memory is ______ when the target word ______ in the sentence than when it _______
better, fits, doesn’t
Elaboration should be _______ to the thing you are trying to ________
associated, remember
Familiarity Effect is when ….
you read and re-read something, so the material becomes familiar to you, but it doesn’t mean you understand it
Illusions of Learning is when……
people think they understand something better than they actually do
Reading may only induce a …..
shallow level of processing
Understanding requires a deeper ______ level of processing and _______ to other _______ and _______
semantic, elaboration, material, broader concepts
Organization helps to ______ information from ______ by ________ the space of things through which we need to _______
retrieve, memory, restricting, search
Bransford and Johnson: subjects read the following passage, then were asked to _____ as many ______ about it as they could ( ________ test)
recall, details, comprehension memory
Bransford and Johnson experiment results: memory for details was ……
poor
Bransford and Johnson experiment results: memory ______ dramatically when subjects got to see this picture ______ reading the passage. The picture provides a _______ for ________ the information from the text, enabling better ______.
improved, before, framework, organizing, retrieval
Retrieval is the ….
process of recovering and using
information in LTM that has been previously encoded
A common cause of forgetting is due to not having the proper ______ to pull a piece of information from ______ into _____
retrieval cue, LTM, STM
Encoding Specificity Principle states….
information is encoded into LTM with its context
Retrieval can also be ______;______ in our environment are constantly pulling memories into our _______
involuntary, cues, consciousness
The ______ in which something
is learned becomes a _____ to _______ a memory.
context, cue, retrieve
Godden & Baddeley: subjects were scuba divers who did ______ either on ______, _______, or some combination.
memory tests, land, underwater
Godden & Baddeley results: subjects ______ more words when the
study and test conditions _______
recalled, matched
Godden & Baddeley results: memory was ______ when the _____ present during ______ also appeared at ______
best, cues, learning, testing
Grant experiment results: more
support for the …..
encoding specificity principle
Grant: subjects read a science article under either ______ or ______ learning conditions, then were ______ under
the same ______ conditions.
“quiet”, “noisy”, tested, quiet/noisy
Grant experiment results: memory was again best when the ______ and _______ conditions ______
learning, testing, matched,
State-Dependent Learning states memory was best when the ______ and _______ moods ______
learning, testing, matched
Transfer Appropriate Processing experiment -> Learning Phase….
used a fill-in-the-blank task and a rhyming task
Transfer Appropriate Processing experiment -> Testing Phase …..
used a standard recognition task and a rhyming task to test memory for the previous target words
Transfer Appropriate Processing experiment results: Memory was _____ when the type of task used at
______ matched the type of task used at ______
best, encoding, retrieval
Transfer Appropriate Processing experiment results: standard _______ was better with a ______ sentence
task than a _______ task, consistent with ______.
recognition, fill-in-the-blank, rhyming, levels of processing
Transfer Appropriate Processing experiment results: but ______ in the rhyming test was better when a _______ was used during the _______.
recognition, rhyming task, learning phase
The assumption from levels of processing that deeper coding is always ______ is _____ always true
better, not,
memory is best when the ______ processing is used during ______
and ______
same, encoding, retrieval
Consolidation Theory: a process consolidation is ______ in order for information to ______ in ______
required, “solidify”, LTM
Consolidation is the process that ….
transforms memories from a fragile state, when they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state that is resistant to disruption
Hebb suggested two types of consolidation……
1) Synaptic consolidation
2) Systems consolidation
Synaptic consolidation: _______ change in the ______ between two neurons at the level of the _______.
More recently referred to as _______.
structural, connection, synapse, long term potentiation
The activation of one neuron by _______ is believed to ________ the ________ between these two neurons in a process known as ______
another, strengthen, structural connection, Hebbian Learning
LTP is the …..
enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation
_______ stimulation leads to _______
connections and a greater likelihood of _______.
Repeated, stronger, firing
Systems consolidation is the ______ formation of a ______ that corresponds to the ______ of something in _____
gradual, neural circuit, trace, LTM
Perseveration is the …..
cycling of information through a
cell assembly
Cell Assembly is the ….
neurons connected in a looping circuit for the purpose of recycling, and therefore preserving, information
Systems Consolidation ( Fast Phase): Synaptic connections get ______ with each cycle through the ______ (via ______ ), eventually resulting in the ______ changes underlying _______.
Information during this stage is _______ the memory formation can be _______ if perseveration is ______
stronger, cell assembly, LTP, structural, long term memory, volatile, disrupted, broken
According to Hebb, graded retrograde amnesia is due to a _______ of ______ and _______
disruption, perseveration, systems consolidation
Graded retrograde amnesia means…..
that memory loss is worse for more recent events
To study graded retrograde amnesia, rats are given a drug
(______) that ______ their _______
anisomycin, disrupts, memory consolidation
If a rat is trained to associate a tone with an electric
shock on day 1, then given this drug on day 2, the rat
will respond to the tone as if it were a shock; the drug
would have no effect because the association was
formed
