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Biology 101 > Exam #2 > Flashcards

Exam #2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Organelles –

A

structure inside a cell that is bound or surrounded by its own membrane

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2
Q

Cytoplasm

A
  • the contents of a eukaryotic cell between the plasma membrane and the nucleus
  • Consist of a semifluid medium and organelles
  • Refer to the interior of a prokaryotic cell
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3
Q

Ribosomes

A
  • Cell structure consisting of RNA and protein organized into two subunits and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
  • In eukaryotic cells – ribosomal subunits are constructed in the nucleolus
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4
Q

Lysosomes:

A

contain digestive enzymes to degrade engulfed material

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5
Q

Chromatin:

A

Genetic material: DNA and Protein

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6
Q

Exergonic –

A

reactions that gives up energy

Catabolic

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7
Q

Endergonic

A

– requires work/energy

Anabolic

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8
Q
  • Membrane-bound nucleus
A

Nucleus: surrounded by a double membrane

  • Have holes
  • Material inside cell: chromatin
  • Chormatin: genetic material: DNA and protein
  • Nucleolus: (another structure inside nucleu)
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9
Q

Know the principal differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

A
  • Eukaryotic is bigger and has a nucleus and organelles; nucleus surrounded by double membrane; DNA house in nucleus
  • Prokaryotic is small and has no nucleus or internal organelles; simple; dna free-floating
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10
Q
  • Endoplasmic reticulum
A

o Long labyrinth like membrane that fills up good portion of cytoplasm
o Two kinds: Rough ER and Smooth ER

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11
Q

o Rough ER

A

 Studded with ribosomes

 Site of protein synthesis

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12
Q

o Smooth ER

A

 No ribosomes

 Site of lipid synthesis

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13
Q
  • Golgi apparatus
A

o Protein Processing and packaging
o (secretory proteins)
o Responsible for taking protein made in ER and packaging them

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14
Q
  • Mitochondria
A

o Cell powerhouse: site of ATP Synthesis

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15
Q
  • Chloroplasts
A 
o	Absorbs sunlight to do photosynthesis
o	Leafy plants and algae only
o	Photosynthesis (ATP from sunlight) and CO2 incorporation
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16
Q
  • Vacuole
A

o Big Storage ‘compartments’
o Starch, enzyme
o lysosomes
o Vesicle: small storage compartments

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17
Q
  • Cytoskeleton
A

o Microtubules (tubulin)

o Microfilaments (actin)

o Centrioles

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18
Q

o Microtubules (tubulin)

A

 Organize and move the organelles
 Responsible for cell shape
 Not bound by membrane
 protein

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19
Q

o Microfilaments (actin)

A

 Movement of the cell (pseudopodia) and organelles (cyclosis)
 Movement of organelles within cells

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20
Q

o Centrioles

A

 Organization of cell division
 Organize formation of microtubules
 Present during cell division

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21
Q
  • Cilia and flagella
A

o Organs of locomotion

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22
Q

o Flagella

A

 Long, relatively few per cell
 Outside of cells
 Whip back and forth and push through environment

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23
Q

o Cilia

A

 Short, many thousands per cell outside
 All move together pushing cell through environment
Can spin, travel straight, left, right, backwards, turn around.

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24
Q
  • Membrane
A

o Aka Plasma Membrane, cytoplasmic membrane
o Membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier to the passage of ions and molecules
o Consists of phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

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25
Q

Structure of phospholipid bilayers

A

o Phospholipid – lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group with two non-polar hydrophobic tails and a polar hydrophilic head
o Outside and inside of cell is made of water therefore:
o Hydrophilic head is both facing outside of cell and inside of cell where water is
o And Hydrophobic tails are sandwiched between the two heads
-

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26
Q

Role of proteins in membranes

A

o Some outside, some inside
o Outside: peripheral protein, hydrophilic
o Inside: embedded: integral protein, hydrophobic
o Help cell interact with environment- ferry nutrients across plasma membrane
o Receive chemical signals from outside cell

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27
Q

osmosis

A

isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic

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28
Q
  • Osmosis
A

o Movement of water across a membrane in response to solute differences outside and inside the cell
o From more concentrated to less concentrated water

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29
Q
  • Isotonic
A

o Has no effect on the passage of water into or out of the cell

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30
Q
  • Hypotonic (osmosis)
A

o Will cause the cell to take up water
o Swell and Burst
o When solute is lower

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31
Q
  • Hypertonic (osmosis)
A

o When solute is higher
o Shrink
o Animal cells without cell wall – shrank cell - crenation
o Plant cells – cell membrane separate with cell wall - plasmolysis

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32
Q
  • Gradient
A

o The difference in concentration

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33
Q
  • The three transport of diffusion
A

o Selective
o 1. Passive transport
o 2. Facilitated transport
o 3. Active transport

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34
Q
  • Passive transport
A

o Simple diffusion (osmosis)

o Movement of solutes across membrane with a gradient (from higher concentration to lower concentration)

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35
Q
  • Facilitated Transport
A

o Movement of solutes across membrane with a gradient dependent on presence of carrier proteins
o From higher concentration to lower concentration
o Without using energy of cell
o Membrane-assisted transport: endocytosis, exocytosis

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36
Q

 Endocytosis

A 
\: get into cell
•	Phagocytosis
o	Deformation of cell membrane to wrap around big object like and engulf foreign material – vacuole
•	Pinocytosis
o	Size difference
o	Small molecules but lots of them
o	Vesicles
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37
Q

 Exocytosis

A
  • Out of cell
  • Cell produce material inside vesicle then fuse with membrane then comes out
  • Reverse of endocytosis
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38
Q
  • Active transport
A

o Movement of solutes across membrane against a gradient

o Requires transport protein and uses energy

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39
Q

Cell walls : difference between plants and animals and bacteria

A
  • Most animals lacks cell wall
  • Plants have cells walls made of cellulose (polysaccharide
  • Bacteria have cell walls made of a polysaccharide: peptidoglycan
  • Cells walls are made up of carbohydrates
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40
Q

Enzyme

A
  • Biological catalyst
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41
Q

Catalysts

A
  • Some other molecule that spreads reaction up without itself being change by the reaction
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42
Q

Activation Energy

A
  • The amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start
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43
Q

ATP

A
  • Adenosine triphosphate

- The main energy source for cell

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44
Q

Substrate

A
  • Reactant
  • A specific substance (reactant) on which an enzyme acts
  • Each enzyme recognizes only the specific substrate or substrates of the reaction it catalyzes
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45
Q

Endproduct

A
  • Products
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46
Q

Feedback Inhibition

A
  • Method of metabolic control in which a product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway
  • Loops all over the cell
  • Way of the cell controlling what’s made or used without wasting resources
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47
Q

Phosphorylation

A
  • Transfer of a phosphate group, usually from ATP, to a molecule
  • Nearly all cellular works depends on ATP energizing other molecules by phosphorylation
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48
Q

Substrate Phosphorylation

A
  • Formation of ATP by an enzyme directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an organic molecule
  • Intermediates in glycolysis or citric acid cycle
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49
Q

Understand how enzymes work

A
  • Lowers the Activation energy of reactions so they happen more often, with greater ease
  • Removes randomness of interactions
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50
Q

Understand the factors that affect enzyme speed

A
  • Temperature
  • pH
  • Ionic Strength
  • Presence of any inhibitors or activators
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51
Q

Understand how enzymes are inhibited

A

Enzyme can be both activated and inhibited

  • Activated – degradative reaction and synthetic reaction
  • Inhibition – Competitive and Non-competitive
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52
Q
  • Degradative Reaction
A

o Taking substrate and breaking it up

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53
Q
  • Synthetic Reaction
A

o Take set of substrate/product and form a new one

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54
Q
  • Competitive Inhibition
A

o A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to the enzymes active site in place of the substrate.
o Competitive structure mimics that of the enzymes substrate (look alike)
o Irreversible
o Neurotoxins, poisons

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55
Q
  • Non-competitive Inhibition
A

o Involves an allosteric site: regulatory site
o Substance that reduces activity of an enzyme without entering an active site
o By binding elsewhere on the enzyme – changes the shape of enzyme
o Prevents binding of substrates
o Reversible – remove inhibitor, shape goes back
o Feedback inhibition

56
Q

Understand what is meant by coupled reactions

A
  • Exergonic reactions are coupled with endergonic reactions in order for the energy released from the exergonic reactions to be stored or used in powering endergonic reactions
  • If not then energy produce cannot be used by cell to do work
57
Q

Main compound responsible for coupling?

A
  • ATP
58
Q

Endorgenic coupling

A
  • Changes from ATP to ADP (phosphate breaks off)
  • P still in cell but not attach to molecule
  • anabolic
    Ca
59
Q

Exergonic coupling

A
  • Capture floating Phosphate to create ATP from ADP
  • Happes when cell has energy derived from food
  • Catabolic
60
Q

Active site

A
  • Part of an enzyme molecule where a substrate molecule attaches (by means of weak chemical bonds)
61
Q

Aerobic

A
  • Requiring oxygen
62
Q

Anaerobic

A
  • Does not require oxygen
  • ATP is derived from oxidative phosphorylation without O2
  • Instead of dumping electrons to O2 they go to Nitrate NO3, SO4 sulfate, and carbon CO3
63
Q

Fermentation

A
  • Alternative to respiration when organisms runs out of O2 or aren’t able to get enough of it needed for cells to keep on making energy
  • Reduction of pyruvate to alcohol or lactic acid
  • Produce little ATP without need of O2
  • Efficiency: 2.1 %
  • End result is inorganic compound
  • Most goes to waste product
64
Q

Respiration

A
  • The transport of oxygen from the outside air to the cells within tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction
65
Q

Mitochondria

A
  • Organelle in eukaryotic cell
  • Where cellular respiration occurs
  • Enclosed by two membranes where most of the cell’s ATP is made
66
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation

A
  • Production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain
  • Third major stage of cellular respiration
67
Q

Redox Reaction

A
  • Movement of electrons from one molecule to another

- Oxidation Reduction

68
Q

Oxidation

A
  • Loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reactions
  • Always accompanies reduction
69
Q

Reduction

A
  • Gain of electrons by a substance involved in a redox reactionis
  • Always accompanies oxidation
70
Q

Cytochromes

A
  • electron transport protein
  • Responsible for the generation of ATP via Electron Transport System ETS
  • pigments
71
Q

Chemiosmosis

A
  • Energy coupling mechanism
  • Uses energy of hydrogen ion H+ gradients across membranes to drive cellular work, such as the phosphorylation of ADP
  • Powers most ATP synthesis in cells
72
Q

Know the overall chemical equation for aerobic respiration.

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP)

73
Q

3 parts to Cellular/Aerobic Respiration

A
    1. Glycolysis
    1. Krebs cycle
    1. ETS
74
Q

Glycolysis

A
  • Glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid (pyruvate) releasing electrons (NADH) and ATP
  • Simple sugar like glucose (mono) broken down half, into compound pyruvic acid
  • End result: 2 ATP and 2 NADH
75
Q

Krebs Cycle

A
  • Pyruvate is oxidized to CO2 releasing more electrons
  • End result:
  • 2 NADH
  • 2 [CO2] turn all sugar into CO2
  • 6 NADHH
  • 2 FADH2
  • 2 ATP
  • [CO2]
  • Atp produced through substrate phosphorylation
  • Uses sugar to get energy but not to build anything
76
Q

ETS

A
  • Electron transport system
  • The released electrons are used to make ATP
  • Way of moving electrons through the cell in such a way that flow of electrons produces enough energy so that the cell make ATP
  • Requires membrane
  • Uses cytochromes
  • Requires oxygen as final electron accepter
  • Results in formatioin H2O
  • Final dumping ground from all electron – O2 gets turn into H2O
77
Q

The starting reactants of Respiration

A
  • Simple glucose, monosaccharide – glycolysis
  • Kreb cycle – AcetylCoA to CO2
  • ETS – CO2 to ATP
78
Q

The end product of Aerobic Respiration

A
  • ATP (energy)
79
Q

ATP Released in each part of Aerobic Respiration

A
  • Glycolysis – 2
  • Kreb Cycle – 2 atp
  • ETS – 28 ATP
  • Total of 32 ATP per glucose per book
  • total of 36 per PowerPoint and 32 from ETS PER LECTURE
  • Energy conversion is approximately 39% ATP made rest heat.
80
Q

Understand the roles of NADH and FADH

A
  • Used as electron sources to power the formation of ATP in the mitochondria
81
Q

Understand where in the cell, respiration takes place.

A
  • mitochondria
82
Q

Understand the role of oxygen in respiration.

A
  • energy stored in NADH could not be harnessed for ATP synthesis
  • ETS system requires oxygen as a final electron acceptor for ATP to be created
  • It is the final dumping ground of all electrons which gets turn into water
83
Q

Understand what happens in cells undergoing fermentation.

A
  • Muscle tissue fails to keep up enough O2 for the energy demands of cells
  • Animal cell: end product: buildup of lactic acid in muscle cells
  • Pain stimulant-nerve pain
  • Pain stays until blood system restore balance
84
Q

Understand the concepts of catabolism, anabolism and metabolism
Metabolism

A
  • All the reactions that the cell uses to get energy and to use it
  • 2 parts: catabolism and anabolism
85
Q

Catabolism

A
  • To get energy
  • the reactions that breakdown large molecules (Carbohydrates) to smaller molecules (Carbon dioxide and water) and Release Energy
86
Q

Anabolism

A
  • to use energy

- the reactions that use energy to make large molecules (proteins) out of small ones (amino acids)

87
Q

3 Catabolic Stages

A
  • Hydrolytic stage
  • Degradative stage
  • Oxidative stage
88
Q

Hydrolytic stage

A
  • Happens outside the cell
  • Break up big molecule to smaller
  • starch to sugar
  • proteins to amino acid
  • lipids to fatty acid
89
Q

Degradative stage

A
  • happens in cytoplasm
  • ATP made by substrate phosphorylation
  • Glycolysis and krebs cycle
90
Q

Oxidative

A
  • Happens in mitochondria
  • ATP made by oxidative phosphorylation
  • Electron flow is producing ATP
  • End result of ETS is always ATP production
  • Requires oxygen
91
Q

Catabolism and Anabolism

A
  • Atp produced during catabolic reactions is used to make new cell material
  • Starting material are intermediate compounds of glycolysis and krebs cycle
  • The cell’s METABOLIC POOL
92
Q

Metabolic Pool

A
  • Cells need to make new cell membranes in order to divide and needs fatty acids to make phospholipids. Fatty acids are made from acetyl-coA
  • If metabolic intermediates are used they need to be replaced: the pool has to stay full
  • Needs to be balanced: cells needs for growth and need for energy
93
Q

Chloroplast

A
  • Organelle found in plants and photosynthetic protists

- Absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic molecules (sugars) from carbon dioxide and water

94
Q

Chlorophyll

A
  • Green pigment located within the chloroplasts of plants, algae, and certain prokaryotes
95
Q

Carotenoids

A
  • Orange pigments synthesized by plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
96
Q

Xanthophyll

A
  • Typical yellow pigment of leaves
  • Oxygenated carotenoids that are synthesized within the plastids
  • Does not require light for synthesis
  • Present in all young leaves as well as in etiolated leaves
97
Q

Grana

A
  • The stacks of thylakoids embedded in the stroma of a chloroplast
98
Q

Thylakoids

A
  • Flattened membranous sac inside a chloroplast
  • Contain chlorophyll
  • Stack = granum
99
Q

Stroma

A
  • Dense fluid within the chloroplasts that surrounds the thylakoid membrane
  • Involved in synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water
  • Where sugars are made by enzyme of Calvin Cycle
100
Q

Stoma

A
  • Pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of a leaf
  • When stomata are open, CO2 enters a leaf and water and O2 exits
  • Plants conserves water when its stomata are closed
101
Q

Mesophyll

A
  • Green tissue in the interior of a leaf
  • A leafs ground tissue system
  • The main site of photosynthesis
102
Q

Know where in the plant and where in the cells photosynthesis takes place.
Where in the plants does photosynthesis takes place?

A
  • The Green Leaves

- Mesophyll

103
Q

Where does Photosynthesis in the cells takes place?

A
  • Chloroplast
    o Substructure of another cell/always inside of another cell
    o Consists of layer of membrane thylakoid
     Inner most membrane of chloroplasts
     Contains chlorophyll
     Pigment responsible to capture most sunlight
104
Q

Know the major differences between the light-dependent and light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.

A

Light – dependent

  • Sunlight must be present
  • ATP is made through oxidative processes
  • Water H2O is a source of electrons
  • As a result O2 is a waste product
  • Cell is making ATP and NADPH
  • Take place in Thylakoid (dependent in intact membrane)
105
Q

Where does NADPH and ATP gets made?

A
  • Outside of thylakoid in the Stroma
106
Q

Know where in the chloroplasts the different reactions of photosynthesis take place.

A
  • Chlorophyll - absorbs sunlight
  • Stroma - light independent reaction, where ATP and NADPH is made
  • thylakoids - site of light dependent reactions
107
Q

Know the overall chemical reaction for photosynthesis.

A

6CO2 + 12H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + H2O

108
Q

Be able to describe what happens to photosynthesis in situations of high temperature and low humidity

A

Transpiration

  • C3/normal plants wilts
  • Imbalance in gasses – Low CO2 and High O2/ calvin cycle doesn’t work
  • Runs backwards; starts chewing up sugar and producing more CO2
  • Stoma closes, but cells is still photosynthesizing
  • Build up of O2 in intercellular space/ closed pores can’t get out
  • Tropics – C4 plants survive – corn, sugarcane, tropical grasses
109
Q

Photosynthesis is propelled by gas exchange

A
  • By pores of leaves
  • CO2 comes in and O2 comes out
  • Space filled up with water
  • Xylem conducts water from roots to leaves
  • If water dissipates more than ability to make – plant wilts
110
Q

Difference in C3 C4 and CAM plants in Calvin Benson Cycle

A
  • C3 – Everything happens same time same place
  • C4 – spatial separation of CO2 fixation vs Rest of cycle
    o Separate cells
  • CAM – temporal/time separation of CO2 fixation vs rest of cycle – pineapple
  • End result is Sugar
111
Q

Where is sugar made during photosynthesis?

A

-stroma of the chloroplast

112
Q

Enzymes have the effect of doing what inside cells ?

A
  • Enzyme is a biological catalysts and Lowers the Activation Energy of reactions so they happen more often, with greater ease
113
Q

What is the active site of an enzyme?

A
  • Active site is the part of the enzyme molecule where a substrate molecule attaches (by means of weak chemical bonds)
  • Typically a pocket or groove on the enzymes surface
114
Q

What kind of molecule is an enzyme?

A
  • protein
115
Q

How does protein structure and internal binding affect enzyme function?

A
  • Structure is important in forming active sites – conformation
  • The form and charges are important in binding
  • It has to fit with its substrates as a lock and key
  • Specific enzyme and compound
116
Q

How do environmental effects influence enzyme function?

A
  • Temperature, pH, ionic strength

- It will change the structure and function of proteins

117
Q

What is meant by competitive inhibition, give an example.

A
  • A look alike reactants binds with an active site and prevents the proper substrates to bind with the active site.
  • Poison, insect and reptile venoms, and neurotoxins
  • Irreversible; permanently inhibits enzymes
118
Q

What is the allosteric site and what does it do?

A
  • Regulatory site
  • The place on an enzyme where a molecule that is not a substrate binds to change the shape of the enzyme/active site so that no other may bind with it but the proper substrate
  • Reversible
  • Non-competitive Inhibition
119
Q

What is non-competitive inhibition, give an example

A
  • Substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme without entering an active site
  • Binds elsewhere on the enzyme
  • Changes the shape of enzyme
  • Reversible
  • Cyanide, potassium cyanide
120
Q

Which of the following reactions is correct

a) ATP + energy —– > ADP + Pi
b) ADP —– > ATP + Pi + energy
c) ATP —– > ADP + Pi + energy
d) ADP + energy —–> ATP +Pi

A

C

121
Q

In aerobic respiration what has to be present to release energy from NADH

A
  • Oxygen
122
Q

Glycolysis where in the cell

A
  • Cytoplasm
123
Q

What causes the burning sensation and fatigue during rapid exercise?

A
  • Lactic Acid

- Lack of O2

124
Q

Biological catalysts are called what

A
  • Enzymes
125
Q

The by-product (waste) of the Krebs cycle is

A
  • CO2
126
Q

The products of glycolysis are

A

2 ATP and 2 NADH

127
Q

ATP made during glycolysis is made by what process

A
  • Substrate-level phospholyration
128
Q

Where in eukaryotic cells does oxidative phosphorylation take place

A
  • mitochondria
129
Q

What is the purpose of fermentation

A
  • complements glycolysis
  • Makes it possible for ATP to be continually produced in the absence of oxygen
  • By oxidizing the NADH produce in glycolysis
130
Q

The greatest contribution of electrons to the ETS comes from _______________?

A

NADH and FADH2

131
Q

The compound which feeds into the Krebs cycle is _______________?

A

Acytel-CoA

132
Q

What is catabolism? List some examples of catabolism

A
  • To get energy
  • Glycolysis
  • Citric acid cylce
  • Breakdown of muscle protein in order to use amino acids as substrates for gluconeogenesis
  • Breakdown of fat in adipose tissue to fatty acids
  • Proteins to amino acids
  • Proteins to glucose
  • Triglycerides to fatty acids
133
Q

What is anabolism? List some examples of anabolism

A
  • To use energy
  • Synthesizing glucose
  • Build biological molecules
  • Amino acids to polypetides (proteins)
  • Glucose to glycogen
  • fatty acids to triglycerides
134
Q

How many ATP are produced from the electron transport chain alone ( only oxidative phosphorylation) from one molecule of glucose

A
  • 32 ATP
135
Q

How many ATP molecules are generated for each molecule of glucose in aerobic respiration

A
  • 36 ATP per glucose molecule per lecture

- Total of 32 for Aerobic Respiration per book

Biology 101 (13 decks)

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