Exam 2 Flashcards
What is total blood volume
Peripheral blood plus sequestered blood
What is the function of peripheral blood
Accomplishes perfusion of tissues carrying O2, nutrients, and taking away wastes
What are the 2 types of transfusion therapy
Replace whole blood or blood components such as packed RBCs, fresh frozen plasma, or platelet rich plasma
What are indications of needing transfusion therapy
Rapid blood loss, severe anemia, coagulation factor deficiency, hypoproteinemia, and thrombocytopenia
What are common locations of venipuncture
Cephalic, jugular, saphenous, arterial, and ericular
What color tube is used for a CBC
Purple top due to the EDTA anticoagulant
What tubes are used for chem panels
Red or green tops
What electrolyte is often found in purple tops
Potassium (K)
What stains are used for blood smears
Polychromatophilic hematology stains specifically Wright’s containing a fixative solution, methylene blue, and eosin
What color tube do we use to hold blood for blood smears
Purple tops
What are the cellular components of blood
Erythrocytes (RBCs), thrombocytes (platelets), leukocytes (WBCs)
What are the 2 types of WBCs
Granular and agranular
What are the granular WBCs
Basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils
What are the agranular WBCs
Lymphocytes and monocytes
What are the functions of blood
Transportation of O2, nutrients, waste products, hormones, and platelets, regulation of body temperature, tissue fluid content, blood pH, and ion balance, and defense system using WBCs and platelets
What is hematopoiesis
Production of blood cells continuously done in the red bone marrow
Where is red bone marrow found
Ribs, skull, sternum, vertebrae, pelvis, and proximal femurs
What are pluripotent stem cells
Cells that have the potential to become one of many cells
What is erythropoiesis
Production of RBCs made from precursor cells under hormonal influence of erthropoietin released from the kidney in response to decreased O2 levels
What is hypoxia
Low O2 in the tissue
What is hypoxemia
Low O2 in the blood
What is a polychromasia
RBC that has a nucleus
What is thrombopoiesis
Production of thrombocytes made from megakaryocytes, takes 7 days, pieces of the megakarocytes cytoplasm are released into peripheral blood forming platelets, occurs in the bone marrow under hormonal influence of thrombopoietin released from the liver based on removal of senescent platelets
What is leukopoiesis
Production of WBCs there are 3 types granulopoiesis, lymphopoiesis, and monopoiesis
What do mature RBCs lack
Nucleus, mitochondria, and ribosomes
What is the central zone of pallor in RBCs
Where there is no hemoglobin so it appears colorless
Why are RBCs biconcave
So the cells are flexible
What do RBCs use for energy
Glucose
What is hemoglobin
A molecule containing 4 total heme groups and iron in the center is able to carry 4 oxygen molecules
What is oxyhemoglobin
Term for hemoglobin when oxygen is bound
What is deoxyhemoglobin
Hemoglobin molecule when oxygen unbinds to it
What influences hemoglobins ability to bind to oxygen
Blood pH, body temp, and blood levels of oxygen, and CO2
What is the turnover for erythrocytes
Constant but low rate turnover 1%/day
What is extravascular hemolysis
Macrophages primarily in the spleen (liver and bone marrow) remove RBC’s from circulation, cell membrane ruptured, hemoglobin released, hemoglobin degrades to AA, iron, and heme, the AA return to the liver where new proteins are built, iron is transported to bone marrow for recycling, and heme is further broken down into bilirubin, attaches to albumin and goes to the liver, bilirubin is conjugated to glucuronic acid, conjugated bilirubin is excreted into intestines, bacteria converts it to urobilinogen, some urobilinogen is reabsorbed but most is excreted w/ feces as stercobilin and urine as urobilin
What is intravascular hemolysis
RBC membrane ruptures w/in a vessel, hemoglobin released directly into bloodstream, hemoglobin binds to haptoglobin, and macrophages in liver further break it down
Where is excess hemoglobin carried to
The kidneys leading to hemoglobunuria
How is the volume of packed RBCs
Measured and expressed as a percent of total volume of blood
How is anemia created
Can be indicated by any one or a combination of concentrated Hgb (concentration of hemoglobin), RBC (# RBCs/volume blood), and Hct (% of RBCs in blood by volume)
What is the reticulocyte count
RETIC is the number of immature forms of the RBCs per a specific total number of RBCs
What is leukocyte count
Total number of WBC per volume of blood and is inclusive of all WBC types
What is platelet count
PLT is the total number of platelets per volume of blood
What is the total plasma protein
TP amount of protein in plasma portion of a specific volume of blood
What is anisocytosis
When RBCs are not the same size
What are characteristics of thrombocytes on a blood smear
Non nucleated, round to oval in shape, and clear cytoplasm
What are thrombocytes role in hemostasis
Plugging holes in the blood stream to prevent blood loss
What can absence in thrombocytes result in
Bleeding disorders
What is petechiae
Pinpoint hemorrhages on skin/mucosa
What organ produces thrombopoietin
The liver
What is coagulation cascade
A series of reactions, generates a large quantity of fibrin, and endothelium produces substances for fibrinolysis
What are the steps of coagulation cascade
Fibrin attaches on aggregated platelets surface, prevents further escape of blood, and acts as scaffolding for repair of damaged vessel
What is fibrin
Makes the blood clot and provides framework for platelets to prevent blood loss
What is the function of leukocytes
Defend against foreign invaders via phagocytosis and developing immunity
What are neutrophils
An early immune response that forms 40-75% of circulating WBC, in their mature form they are considered polymorphonuclear leukocytes containing 3-5 nuclear segments, and they spend about 10 hrs in the bloodstream then enters tissue
What type of WBC is most prominant in dogs and cats
Neutrophils
What are the 2 types of neutrophils
Marginal and circulating
What are marginal neutrophils
Non circulating that just wait in the blood stream to be told where to go
How often are circulating neutrophils replaced
About 2.5x/day
What are bands
Partially mature neutrophils that arent segmented
What is chemotaxis
Process that attracts neutrophils to inflammatory chemicals at site of infection
What is diapedesis
Process usued by neutrophils to go from circulation into tissue spaces
What is the marginal:circulating pool in dogs, cattle, and horses
50:50
What is the marginal:circulating pool in cats
30:70
What can lead to increasing the amount of circulating neutrophils
Stress from trauma, fear, exercise, and splenic contraction
What are opsonins
Proteins typically antibodies that bind/coat the microorgansim, guides things to what they are suppose to be eating, and neutrophils can engulf the microorganism
What is opsonization
The coating process
How does phagocytosis occur
Microorganism stays in the phagosome and cytoplasmic granules in the neutrophil fuse w/ phagosome
What is neutrophilia
Increase in neutrophils in the blood
What are the 3 ways something can have neutrophilia
More mature neutrophils, left shift indicating more neutrophils that are not mature, and degenerative left shift which is there are more immature neutrophils in the bloodstream
What are the causes of neutrophilia
Stress and infection (bacteria, fungal, and protozoal)
What is neutropenia
Decrease in neutrophils in the blood
What causes neutropenia
Acute infection, sepsis, and viral infection
What are eosinophils
Phagocytic cells named for red staining granules, 1-6% of WBC, usually 2 lobed nucleus, last 3-8 hrs in circulation attracted to allergic reactions, and then migrate to tissues
What are the functons of eosinophils
Defense against parasitic infection and intracellular bacteria, anti inflammatory effects, and phagocytosis
Eosinophilia
Increase in eosinophils in the blood caused by parasites and allergies
What are eosinopenia
Decrease in eosinophils in the blood due to stress and steroids such as hyperadrenocorticism aka cushings
What are basophils
Blue staining granules, contain histamine and heparin, <1% of WBC, multi lobed nuclei, least phagocytic of granulocytes, and are water soluble
What is basophilia
Increase in basophils in the blood caused by parasitic infections and allergies
What is basopenia
Decrease in basophils in the blood however this isnt likely
Why is basophilia and basopenia difficult to quantify
Because basophilia can be increased and still normal while basopenia may not be present at all and cant go below 0
What are lymphocytes
Smaller than neutrophils, round or oval nucleus w/ small amount of clear cytoplasm, most live in lymphoid tissue and circulate btw these tissues and blood
What is lymphocytosis
Increase in lymphocytes in the blood and caused by epinephrine effect, chronic bacterial infection, leukemia, lymphoma, and hypoadrenocorticism (addisions)
What is lymphocytopenia/lymphopenia
Decrease in lymphocytes in the blood caused by stress leukogram, acute infection (bacterial and viral), and glucocorticoids (hyperadrenocorticism aka cushings)
What are the 4 different types of leukocytes
T lymphocytes (T cells), B lymphocytes (B cells), plasma cells, and natural killer (NK) cells
What are antigens
Stimulates the immune system
What are antibodies
What the body produces based on the antigen
What are T cells
Majority of lymphocytes in blood, processed in thymus before going to peripheral lymphoid tissue, and cell mediated immunity and activating B cells
What are B lymphocytes
Travel through lymph nodes, spleen, and other lymphoid tissue, rarely in peripheral blood, and each B cell produces one type of Ab to one specific Ag sense is based on epitope
What is humoral immunity
Ag binds to a B cell, B cells get excited undergo blastic transformation into plasma cells, the plasma cells live in tissue making immunoglobulin this is the same antibody produced by the B cell but in significantly higher quantity, and all B cells are unaffected
What are NK cells
Found in blood and lymph and induce apoptosis or lysis of the organism’s cells
How are NK cells inhibited
A cell w/ inhibitory signs are not killed by the NK cells
How are NK cells activated
Activating signs trigger the NK cell to kill the cell it is attached to
What are memory cells
Both T cells and B cells can become memory cells, wait in lymphoid tissue for repeat exposure to Ag this results in faster response and greater magnitude, this is not a lymphocyte, and this is the goal when we vaccinate pets
What are monocytes
5-6% of circulating WBC, largest WBC in circulation, nuclei can be round to pseudo lobulated, and abundant cytoplasm that strains slightly blue
What is the constitute mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS)
Monocytes + macrophages
How does MPS occur
When monocytes move into tissues and can live up to 100 days in tissues
What is the function of monocytes
Clean up cellular debris after infection/inflammation resolves and ingest antigens and present them to lymphocytes
What is monocytosis
Increase in monocytes in the blood that is caused by stress leukogram and chronic inflammation typically related to infection, immune mediated, and neoplasia
What is monocytopenia
Decrease in monocytes in the blood typically caused by bone marrow disease
What is the first part of the lymphatic system
System of ducts and lymph fluid
What is the second part of the lymphatic system
System of lymphoid organs and tissues such as the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils, and gut associated lymph tissue
What are the functions of lymphatic system
Removal of excess tissue fluid (inadequate drainage leads to edema), waste material transport, filtration of lymph, and protein transport
What is lymph formation
Starts as excess tissue fluid w/ little reabsorbed by venules which is entirely returned to circulation via lymphatic flow
What is lymphatic system circulation
Interstitial fluid moves to lymph capillaries, which moves to progressively larger vessels, relies on one way valves and body movements, lymph passes thru at least one lymph node picks up lymphocytes and macrophages remove microorganisms, exits thru the thoracic duct, and empties into vena cava
Where is lymph located and whats its qualities
Located in the thoracic duct lymph is transparent/translucent and contains varying numbers of lymphocytes
What is the difference between plasma and lymph
Plasma has more water, sugar, and electrolytes and fewer large proteins
What is chyle
Lymph from the digestive system
What are the primary lymphatic system organs
Regulate lymphocyte maturation in developing animals, leukopoiesis occurs in bone marrow, thymus produces T cells, bursa of fabricius produces B cells in birds, and gut associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) produces B cells in rabbits, ruminants, and pigs
What are the secondary lymphatic system organs
Develop later in fetal development and persist into adulthood, spleen, lymph nodes, and mucosa associated lymphatic tissue such as tonsils (MALT)
What cell development occurs in the bone marrow
Leukopoiesis which commonly produces myeloid and lymphoid cells
What is the thymus
Cranial thorax, present in young animals that degrades w/ age, and precursors from the bone marrow develops thymocytes which turn into T cells
What are T cells programed to do
Fight specific Ag then leave the thymus for secondary lymphoid tissue
What is the Bursa of Fabricius
Only found in birds above the cloaca where B cells mature
What is a peyer’s patches
Wall of SI, it is one type of GALT, the structure and function vary amoung species, and activate B cells to produce antibodies
Why do tonsils get enlarged
In response to antigenic stimulation they trap and process antigens and mature lymphocytes that mediate immune response
What are the important parts of lymph node
Cortex (B cells, follicular dendritic cells, and subscapular macrophages), paracortex (T cells and dendritic cells), and medulla (macrophages and plasma cell)
What is the spleen
Tongue shaped organ that is on the left side of abdomen, stores RBCs filters blood/lymph, surrounded by a capsule, and interiorly contains white and red pulp
What does the outer capsule of the spleen contain
Fibrous CT, smooth muscle, and the trabeculae shoots off the capsule
What is the difference between red and white pulp
White contains lymphocytes red contains blood vessels, macrophages, and sinuses
Where else are MALT located in the body
In all mucosal linings
What are the differences btw MALT (tonsils) and lymph nodes
MALT are found close to moist epithelial surfaces, found at beginning of lymph drainage system and have no capsule
What are the immune system components of the skin
Resident microorganisms and acidic pH and FAs are found in sweat
What is the immune system found in mucous membranes
Mucus and cilia in the respiratory tract, stomach acidity, and fluids such as tears, salvia, and urine
What is the innate immune system
Targets non self, is non specific, 1st line of defense is a physical barriers such as the skin, 2nd line of defense are cellular and chemical coponents such as macrophages and neutrophils, and everyone should have this
What is the adaptive immune system
Individually developed based on exposure and these are trained to target specific antigens as a 3rd line of defense
What is a hemogram
A CBC
What is a erythrogram
Measures/monitors the RBCs in a small portion of blood
What is a leukogram
Measures/monitors all WBCs in a small portion of the blood
Thrombogram
Measure/monitor number of platelets in a small portion of the blood
What is erythropenia/erythrocytopenia
Decrease of RBCs in the blood
What is erythrocytosis
Increase of RBCs in the blood
What is reticulocytosis
Increase in reticulocytes/immature RBCs being produced in the red bone marrow
What is polychromasia
Increase in immature RBCs present in the blood stream
What is thrombocytopenia
Decrease in platelets in the blood
What is thrombocytosis
Increase in the amount of platelets in the blood
What is leukopenia
Decrease in the amount of WBCs in the blood stream
What is leukocytosis
Increase in the amount of WBCs in the blood stream
What is hypoglycemia
Low blood sugar
What is euglycemia
Normal glucose in the blood
What is hyperglycemia
High blood sugar
What is hypercapnia
High CO2 levels in the blood
What is hypocapnia
Low CO2 levels in the blood stream
What is hypoproteinemia
Low protein in the blood stream
What is hyperproteinemia
High protein levels in the blood stream
What is hemoglobinemia
Excess hemoglobin present in the blood plasma
What is hemoglobinuria
Excess of hemoglobin present in the urine
What is coagulopathy
A blood condition in which the cloating factor is affected
What is lipemia
Increase in fats/lipids in the blood stream
What are the characteristics of the innate immune system
Rapid/non specific, present at birth, destroys “non self” invaders, uses physical, chemical, cellular components, and contains the first and second lines of defense
What are the characteristics of the adaptive immune system
Slower to respond, not present at birth, specific targets, develops/adapts as animal exposed to Ag, uses Ab, memory cells, plasma cells, B cells, and T cells (all lymphocytes), and is the 3rd line of defense
WHat are the anatomical barriers that make up the 1st line of defense
Keratinized epithelium, hair/fur, cilia, mucous membranes, and body fluids such as tears, saliva, nasal discharge, and gastric acid
What are the components of the second line of defense
Inflammation, cells such as phagocytes and NK cells, and chemicals that complement previous methods, cytokines, pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)
What is the goal of inflammation in the innate immune system
Influences recruitment of more WBC by increasing blood flow to the area and increasing permeability of the vasculature so WBC can go into tissue more easily, releases histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and cytokines
What are the 4 cardinal signs and loss of function of inflammation
Pain, redness, heat, and swelling
What does pyrexia mean
Fever
What does the fever do for the innate immune system
It is a systematic inflammatory response that inhibits pathogen growth and accelerates phagocytosis, lymphocyte, and Ab production
What occurs w/ an excessively high fever (>104)
Proteins denature
What cells preform phagocytosis in the innate immune system
Neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages that respond to receptors to identify non selfs that need to be eliminated using PAMP receptors and complement receptors
What are the 5 steps of phagocytosis
Activation/chemotaxis, attachment, ingestion/endocytosis, destruction, and exocytosis
What is the activation/chemotaxis phase of phagocytosis
Attracted by PG, cytokines, complement pr, and bacterial components
What is the attachment phase of phagocytosis
Receptors recognize non specific molecules on the pathogen cell membrane and bind
What is the ingestion phase of phagocytosis
Pseudopods engluf the microorganism into the phagosome
What is the destruction phase of phagocytosis
Lysosome fuses w/ phagosome to become a phagolysosome and digestive enzymes break it down
What is the exocytosis of phagocytosis
Indigestible material is released from the phagocyte
What complements the innate immunity
A large group of plasma proteins that are mostly proteolytic enzymes, these are produced by the liver and are floating around in the blood until activated in the presence of Ag or Ag-Ab complex
What are the functions of the complement of the innate immune system
Trigger inflammation, alter microbial cell membranes, and chemotaxis
What is the complement cascade
Series of activation of complement that leads to complement fixation, results in Ag cell lysis or apoptosis, the complement proteins attach to the cell wall forming rings, the rings develop pores allowing water to enter the cell, leading to the cell expanding and bursting
What do cytokines do for cell immunity
Helps the cell move, communicates/signals WBC, inhibition, enhance the immune response, and role in hematopoiesis
WHat are examples of cytokines in the innate immune system
Autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine
What are the types of cytokines
Interleukins, interferons, and chemokines
What are interleukins
Regulate leukocyte growth especially T and B cells
What are interferons
Proteins produced by the host immune cells in response to infection and cancer and is paracrine
What are chemokines
Chemical signaling cells that signal where injury has occured
What do NK cells do in the innate immune system
Natural killer cells in lymph and blood that binds to virus infected, stress, or cancerous cell to preform apoptosis or lysis the cells
What are naive cells
B&T cells that havent been taught yet
Where do B cells undergo humoral immunity
Lymph nodes and spleen
How can we distinguish B cells from other cells
B cells have huge a golgi apparatus
What do B cells fight
EC pathogens
What type of pathogens do T cells fight
Intracellular pathogens
What is cell mediated immunity
Fights IC pathogens and T cells attach Ag markers on phagocytes that have processed the pathogen uses memory cells, helper cells, cytotoxic T cells, and regulatory T cells
What are the 5 types of immunoglobulins
IgM, IgG, IgA, IgE, and IgD
What is IgM
Largest immunoglobulins temporary first exposure to Ag and is developed from the mucosa
What is IgG
Smallest and most common immunoglobulins such as plasma cells, developed from chronic infection, passive immunity to fetus and neonates, and can bind to 2 of the same antigen
What is IgA
Associated w/ mucosal surfaces
What is IgE
Binds allergens, triggers histamine release from mast cells and basophils, works w/ eosinophils, and protects against parasitic helminth infections
What is IgD
Also activates mast cells and basophils
What are helper cells
T cells that secrete cytokines
What are cytotoxic cells
Aka effector cells, killer cells, and killer T cells they attach to Ag markers on cells and destroy them
What are regulatory T cells
Inhibit helper and cytotoxic T cells, prevent B cells from becoming plasma cells, and keep things in check
What are the factors that affect the likelihood of disease
Exposure, mode of infection/transmission, virulence/degree of pathogenicity, immune system strength, and resistance acquired and species
What is passive immunity
Ab received from an external source such as maternal Ab placenta and colostrum and maternal derived antibody, they provide protection but no activation in the immune system, and Ab eventually clear, leaving no protection immunity
What is passive transfer
Transfer of antibodies from dam to baby
What is failure of passive transfer
When passive transfer fails to occur, this is huge in horses, and if this occurs they are more likely to get infection
What immunoglobulins are in colostrum
IgG, IgA, and IgM
What are barriers to antibody protection
Environmental, lifestyle, health status, immune system, age, and vaccine history
