Exam 1 Flashcards
Sagittal plane
Left and right but not necessarily equal
Median plane
Type of sagittal plane that divides the body into equal left and right side
Tranverse plan
Breaks the body up front and back aka cranial and caudal
Dorsal plane
Divides the body into top and bottom aka dorsal and ventral
Dorsum
On back
Ventrum
On chest
Ventral recumbence
Dorsoventral view on rads aka sternal
Dorsal recumbence
Ventrodorsal view on rads
Right lateral recumbence
Right lateral view on rads that has the right side down
Left lateral recumbence
Left lateral view on rads that has the left side down
Where does the use of cranial and caudal end on all animals
The carpi and tarsi
Rostrum
What we use to describe position on the cranium meaning towards the nose
When are proximal and distal mostly used
When discussing limbs
When is palmar used
Only in relevence to the bottom part of the front feet
When is plantar used
Only in relevance to the bottom part of the back feet
Bracium
Arm/humerus
Antebrachium
Forearm cranial to the carpus
What is another word for hock
Tarsus
What is bilateral symmetry
The left and right halves of the body are essentially mirror images
According to the rules of bilateral symmetry where are the individual organs located
Near the midline
What is the dorsal cavity and what are the two ind cavities it is broken into
Where the CNS is located and its broken up into the cranial and spinal cavity
What is the ventral cavity and what are the two ind cavities it is broken into
It is where the organs are located and it is broken into the thorax and abdomen
What divides the ventral cavity
The diaphragm
What is the ventral cavity called in animals that dont have a diaphragm
Coelomic cavity
What important structures are in the cranial thoracic cavity
Heart, lungs, blood vessels, esophagus, and trachea
What is the pleura
Thin lining membrane that covers the organs and cavity wall of the thorax
What is the visceral layer of the pleura/peritoneum
The pleura/peritoneum that lines the organs
What is the parietal layer of the pleura/peritoneum
The pleura/peritoneum that covers the cavity wall
What are the important structures in the caudal abdominal cavity
Digestive organs, reproductive organs, urinary organs, and blood vessels
What organization layers of the body
Cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems
What are the 4 types of body tissues
Epithelial tissues, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue
What is the difference between a group of tissues and a group of organs
Tissues work together to perform one task while organs are involved in the set of activities
What is disease
The result of abnormal anatomy or physiology
What is homeostasis
Maintenance of dynamic equilibrium by actively using energy and work to balance various structures, functions, and properties
What are the functions in a cell
Development, metabolism, differentiation, growth, repro, adaptation, respiration, homeostasis, obtaining energy, and other influences from external stimuli
What is a prokaryate
A singular celled organism that lacks a nucleus
What is a eukaryote
Single cells that are found in multi cellular organisms that contain a distinct nucleus that contains DNA
What are things that change based on cell size
SA and the governing ability of the nucleus
What does the SA to cytoplasm ratio affect
The nutritional requirements of the cell the smaller the SA the more nutrients is absorbed
How does the cell size affect the governing ability of the nucleus
The cell size and the activity that takes place dictates the number of nuclei that is required in the cell
What are the common cell structures in all mammalian cells
The plasmalemma/cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus
What is the cell membrane
A flexible elastic phosopholipid bilayer that controls passage of substances into and out of the cell and maintains receptors for attachment of ligands
What makes up the cell membrane
Rafts of hydrophobic phospholipids, cholesterol, and protein in a fluid mosaic pattern cholesterol being the stabilizing piece
How do different materials pass thru the cell membrane
The lipid soluble materials pass w/ ease while the ionized and water soluble materials do not pass readily
What are globular proteins
Proteins responsible for the membranes special functions
What are integral proteins
Globular proteins found w/in the bilayer that may form channels thru which other molecules can pass and can be pores or selectively permeable passageways
What are internal peripheral proteins
They often attach to the cytoskeleton, peripheral proteins, or keratin fibers
What are peripheral proteins
Globular proteins that are bound to the inside or outside surfaces, often acting as enzymes to catalyze specific reactions, may be involved in changing the cell’s shape
What are external peripheral proteins and lipids
They are attached to sugar groups and form the glycocalyx
What is glycocalyx
It is made of glycoprotein and glycolipids comprised of cell adhesion molecules such as CAMs and membrane receptors they improve cell to cell adhesion and interactions between cells
What are CAMs
Sticky glycoproteins that can bond to molecules and each other and move past one another signaling pathways in the inflammatory cascade
What are membrane receptors
Integral proteins and glycoproteins that act as binding sites and involved in contact signaling in cell mediated immune response and chemical signaling such as hormones and neurotransmitters
What are rafts
The move along the cell surface helping organize functional areas on the cell surface, initiate cytokinesis during cell division, form depressions, that may lead to involution, and vesicle formation
What are caveolae
Known as little caves that are small invaginations on the cell surface that pinch off and migrate into the cell to form vesicles
What process are caveolae important for
Endocytosis, transcytosis, and contact signaling
What is the basal bodies
Located at the periphery of the cell just under the membrane that grow the cell membrane outward around the cilia and flagella as they grow
What is cilia
Large numbers on exposed surfaces of certain cells that produce synchronous wave like motion to move fluid, mucus, and debris ex oviduct
What is flagella
Move cells through fluid by propelling the cell forward via undulations, usually occurs singly, and significantly longer than cilia ex sperm
What is cytoplasm
Inner substance of the cell except the nucleus and genetic material made up of cytosol, cytoskeleton, and organelles
What is the cytosol
Viscous fluid of the cell comprised of protein/enzymes, sugars, AA, and dissolved electrolytes
What is the cytoskeleton
3D framework of the cell that supports/shape the cell, allows for movement, organizes metabolism, and anchors organelles
What are the three fiber types that can be found w/in the cytoskeleton
Microtubules, intermediate fibers, and microfilaments
What is a centrosome
Region of cytoplasm near the nucleus that builds and breakdowns microtubules
What are centrioles
Small hollow cylinders composed of 9 triplets of microtubules and duplicates in preparation for cell division becoming the spindle apparatus
What are the functions of the mitochondria
Cellular respiration transforms food into energy, divides by fission if energy demands increase, and contains DNA, RNA, and enzymes
What are the functions of ribosomes
Synthesize proteins and in doing so produces two globular subunits polypeptides and rRNA
What are the two locations of ribosomes
Throughout the cytoplasm and the RER
What is the function of the RER
Protein production
What is the functions of the SER
Synthesis/storage of lipids and steroids, eliminates drugs, and breaks down glycogen to glucose
What is the function of the golgi apparatus
Act as modification, packaging, and distribution center for molecules destined for secretion or for intracellular use such as vesicles
What are vesicles
Package of something surrounded by a membrane
What are lysosomes
The cells specialized stomach formed by the golgi apparatus that breaksdown molecules/debris w/in vesicles, autolysis, and breakdown of EC material
What is apoptosis
Explosive breakdown of a cell
What are proteasomes
Cylindrical structure made of protein subunits that breakdown and removal of unwanted protein in the cell one at a time to be reused
What are peroxisomes
Membranous sacs containing peroxidases and catalases that are formed by fission of vesicles or by pinching off of the ER they are important for detoxification and remove free radicals
What are free radicals
Normal biproducts of cell metabolism that can become a problem in high numbers to proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
What are vaults
Hollow transportation pods for molecules to/from the nucleus that is made from protein and vRNA
What are inclusions
Packaged units of metabolic products or substances the cell engulfed these can be granules, vacuoles, vesicles, lipid droplets, and fat globules these dont take up cytology stain
What are the functions of the nucleus
Maintain DNA and control cellular activity through protein synthesis
What are the components of the nucleus
Nuclear envelope/membrane, nucleoplasm, chromatin, and nucleolus/nucleoli
What are the parts of the nuclear envelope
A two lipid bilayers that has nuclear pores 10% of surface and the outer layer that is continuous w/ ER and is studded w/ ribosomes
What are chromatin
Light or dark fibers in the nucleoplasm that is comprised of DNA and histones
What is the function of histones
To move and manipulate DNA to expose certain strains for translation
What is extended chromatin
Uncoiled chromatin strands actively involved in protein synthesis
What are chromosomes
Condensed chromatin during cell division
What is gene regulation
Histones influencing gene expression by exposing different genes at different times
What are the functions of nucleoli
Ribosomal subunits are made here and contain DNA to govern synthesis of rRNA there is only 1+/nucleus
What are symptoms of dehydration
Lethargic, sunkern eyes, dry chapped nose, dry mouth, gums, thick saliva, excessive panting, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, wobbly/unsteady on feet, dark concentrated color, parched skin that lacks elasticity, and warm to the touch back
What are the symptoms of <5% dehydration
There are no symptoms the animal appears subclinical
What are the symptoms of 5-6% dehydration
Mild loss of skin elasticity
What are the symptoms of 5-8% dehydration
Mild loss of skin elasticity, tacky MM, and globes sunken w/in the orbit
What are the symptoms of 8-10% dehydration
Tacky MM, globes sunken w/in the orbit, more persistent skin tent, and increased PCV/TP
What are the symptoms of 10-12% dehydration
Dry pale MM, globes sunken w/in the orbit, more persistent skin tent, increased PCV/TP, CRT >2 sec, weak/thready pulses, and tachycardia
What are symptoms of 12-15% dehydration
Signs of shock or death
What is sensible water loss
Water loss you can sense and measure w/ typical routes of excretion such as urination, sweat, and defecation
What is insensible water loss
Water loss you cant measure or sense thru transepidermal diffusion and respiratory loss
What is interstitial fluid
Fluid btw cells
What is intravascular fluid
Fluid w/in the vasculature
What is lymphatic fluid
Fluid w/in lymph cells
What does fluid do for the body cavities
Lubricates different things such as btw bones for things to glid btw each other smoothly
What charge does anions have
Negative charge ex chloride and sulfate
What charge does cations
Positive charge ex sodium and potassium
What are the high concentrations of ICF
Potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg+2), hydrogen phosphate (HPO4^-2), and sulfate (SO4^-2)
What are the high concentrations of ECF
Sodium (Na+), bicarbonate (HCO3^-), and chloride (Cl-)
What influences the major ion concentrations
Gradient influences something to move from an area of high concentration to low concentration
What charge does protein have
A negative charge
What is acidity
The more free H+ ions in a solution the greater the acidity
What is alkalinity
The more free OH- ions in a solution the more basic/alkaline
What is the standard pH of blood
7.35-7.45
What are the functions that occur if electrolytes are off
Transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and respiration
What is osmolality
Measurement of solute concentration in fluid per kg of fluid
What is osmolarity
Solute concentration in fluid per liter of fluid
What does isotonic mean
When a fluid osmolality is equal to what is in the body so it is safe to give IV
What are isotonic fluids
Ringer’s solution, LR solution, normosol R, plasmalyte, 0.9% NaCl, 5% dextrose in water, and 2.5% dextrose/0.45% NaCl
What is hypotonic fluid therapy
Osmolality of fluid is less than that of blood so the water flows into the cell leading to swelling and possibly breaking
What is hypertonic fluid therapy
What is osmolality of fluid is greater than that of blood so water shifts into the EC space causing the cell to shrink and shrivels
What is edema
Excess accumulation of fluid in tissue due to abnormal movement of fluid from the vascular space to the interstitial space caused by loss of osmolality in the vasculature
What is another word for abdominal effusions
Ascites
What are crystalloid fluids
Water rich w/ electrolytes that are small solutes that are able to cross vascular wall
What is colloid fluids
Heavy molecules suspended in isotonic crystalloid w/ large solutes that are unable to cross the vascular wall
What are the 3 considerations for administrating fluids
Maintenance (daily needs), replacement for loss fluids, and resuscitation of the fluid in the intravascular spaceresuscitation
What are the methods for passive membrane processes
Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and filtration
What is diffusion
Kinetic movement of molecules from higher to lower concentration based off the concentration gradient
What are the factors affecting whether a molecule may pass through cell membrane
Molecular size, lipid solubility, and molecular charge
What is facilitated diffusion
Selective carrier proteins assist in movement of molecules from higher to lower concentration and is limited by the number of carrier proteins available
What is osmosis
Passive movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from dilute solution to a more conentrated one based on osmotic pressure and “concentration gradient”
What is osmotic pressure
Force of water movement across the membrane
What is osmosis reversed by
filtration when hydraulic pressure applied
What is oncotic pressure
A type of osmotic pressure that occurs w/ large plasma proteins such as blood, interstital fluid, or lymph
What can oncotic pressure fulid imbalance cause
Subcutaneous edema and ascites
What is hydrostatic pressure
The force that pushes the liquid in filtration
What is filtration
Based from a pressure gradient liquids may be pushed through membrane if pressure on one side is greater than that on the other side
What affects water crossing cell membranes and capillary walls
Concentrations of small solutes, large solutes such as albumin, and blood pressure
What are active membrane processes
Movement of molecules and substances across the cell membrane utilizing cell energy
What is active transport
A carrier protein and ATP work against the concentration gradient using a symport system and antiport system
What is cytosis
A form of active membrane process used for bringing nutrients into the cell and ejecting waste
What is endocytosis
Moves things into the cell
What is exocytosis
Moves things outside the cell
What is endocytosis
Transport large particles (phagocytosis) or liquids (pinocytosis) into the cell by engulfing them
What is receptor mediated endocytosis
Receptors sitting in a coated pit waiting for something to bind to the receptor to form a vesicle typically ligands will bind to them
How does endocytosis work
Microtubules to move molecules into the cell and form a membrane around it
How does exocytosis work
Exports cellular products by packaging them in vesicles
What is membrane potential
The potential electrical energy due to separation of ions across the cell membrane
What cells require membrane potential for normal functions
Irritable cells
What can alter the resting membrane potential
Environmental tonicity, osmotic pressure, temp, and contact w/ neighboring cells
What type of cells use meiosis for cellular division
Reproductive cells and germ cells
What type of cells use mitosis for cellular division
Somatice cells
What are the 2 phases of mitosis
Interphase and mitotic phase
What is interphase
The period btw cell division known as the metabolic phase and cell growth occurs throughout the three phases of interphase
What is the growth 1 phase of interphase
The longest phase that can last mins to years, lots of metabolic activity, double growth in size, double the organelles, and centrioles replicate
What is the synthesis phase of interphase
Chromatin becomes less condensed so the DNA replication and gene transciption occur allowing for new histones and new DNA to combine for chromosome duplication
What is the leading strain of DNA replication
Takes one primer and DNA polymerase adds bases
What is the lagging strand of DNA replication
Ligase binds pieces of new DNA together
What are the steps of DNA replication
The chromoses uncoil and become loose chromatin, DNA is copied detaching from histones, the helicase untwists and separates DNA, primases kick off replication by attaching a short chain of RNA to be DNA strand, DNA polymerase 3 places nucleotides and binds them in 5’ to 3’ direction, DNA polymerase 1 replaces the RNA primer w/ DNA, structural maintenance chromosomes place telomere caps on the ends of DNA strand, new DNA wraps around histones making new chromatin, finally 2 identical strands of chromatin are held together at the centromere
What is growth 2 of interphase
Synthesis of enzymes and proteins for divison and continued growth while centrioles complete replication
What is the mitotic phase
The active division phase
What is the prophase of the mitotic phase
Chromatin supercoils into X shapes, centrioles are pushed away from one another as microtubules lengthen froming the mitotic spindle, and ends w/ disintegration of nuclear envelope
What is metaphase of the mitotic phase
Chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell
What is anaphase of the mitotic phase
When the centromere splits in half dividing into sister chromatids by the microtubules, the spindle fibers shorten, and the cell elongates
What is the telophase of the mitotic phase
The final phase begins when chromosomal movement stops, chromosomes recondense into chromatin, the nuclear envelope forms, microbtubules disassemble, the cell pinches off all the way around the cell equator, and cytokinesis occurs
What is cytokinesis
The cytoplasmic division creates 2 daughter cells
What things control mitosis
Various cell types divide at different speeds, contact w/ other cells, growth inhibiting substances release from cells, and checkpoints that asses the division process
What are checkpoints
Cyclins that get activated when they are bound triggering a cascasde that enables cell division
What is transciption
Making messenger RNA from DNA
What is translation
Making protein by linking AA based on mRNA instructions
Whats a mutation
Genetic error caused by mutagens
What are chemical mutagens
Base deletion abnormal linkage btw strands
What is neoplasia
Uncontrolled cell division
What is cancer
Uncontrolled cell division w/ the potential to spread to other locations
What are the three categories we consider when calculating fluid volume
Maintenance, future, and dehydration (loss)
What are the three categories we consider when calculating fluid volume
Maintenance, future, and dehydration (loss)
