Exam 1 Flashcards
definition of microbiology
the study of small life
6 benefits of microbes & 2 harmful microbes
probiotics, fermentation, antibiotics, vaccines, vitamins, enzymes; disease and food spoilage
the first microscope was invented by
Zacharias Janssen
the first person to publish a drawing of a microorganism
Robert Hooke
the first person to observe and describe protozoa, bacteria, RBC, sperm
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
scanning electron microscope (SEM) shows
3D image, surface, coated with gold, mounted
transmission electron microscope (TEM) shows
cross section, microtone
who started the spontaneous generation idea & what were his thoughts
Aristotle; dew, putrid matter, hay, air
abiogenesis definition
theory of how life started on earth; arose naturally from non-living matter: energy from sun, molecules in water, amino acids (protocell)
Louis Pasteur accomplishments
disproved spontaneous generation, fermentation, germ theory of disease, pasteurization, rabies vaccine, fermentation, anthrax vaccine
who was the first person to be vaccinated against rabies
Joseph Meister
Robert Koch accomplishments (father of micro)
tuberculosis, anthrax, cholera, germ theory
Koch’s Postulates
- sick dead mouse, culture disease, view under microscope
- inject healthy mouse
- sick dead mouse, culture disease
- view exact same pathogen under microscope
Issues with Koch’s 4 Postulates
- asymptomatic carriers
- certain things can’t grow in culture
- immunity
who invented antiseptic (carbolic acid) surgery techniques
Joseph Lister
who used cowpox as a vaccine against smallpox and is considered father of immunology
Edward Jenner
who first discovered zoonosis/pathology
Rudolf Virchow
who discovered lysozymes and invented penicillin
Alexander Fleming
who first described phagocytosis
Elie Metchnikoff
who worked with trypanosomes (protozoans) to discover Malta Fever and Chagas Disease
David Bruce
which 3 elements are found in all macromolecules
C, H, O
who started binomial nomenclature (2 kingdoms)
Carl Linnaeus
how to write genus and species
Genus species or G. species (underlined or italicized when printed)
who discovered archaea
Carl Woese
what are the 3 domains
bacteria, archaea, eukarya
prokaryote characteristics
small, flagella, glycocalyx, complex cell wall, binary fission
eukaryote characteristics
large, nucleus, organelles, simple cell wall, sterols/carbs, cytoskeleton, mitosis, meiosis
domain archaea characteristics
prokaryotes, no pathogenic ones (i.e.: love methane, salt, high temps.)
domain bacteria characteristics
prokaryotes, unicellular, peptidoglycan in cell wall
domain eukarya include
protozoa, helminths, fungi, algae, slime mold, animals, plants
ways to identify parasites
morphology, molecular techniques, host specificity, geographical location, tissue trophism
ways to identify viruses
observation with TEM, culturing, fluorescent antibody staining, ELISA, PCR
ways to identify bacteria
staining, biochemical (ELISA), serology (agglutination), phage typing, fatty acid profiles, nucleic acid base testing (PCR, DNA hybridization), mass spectrometry
Bloom’s Taxonomy
cognitive (knowing), affective (feeling), psychomotor (doing)
One Health model encompasses
humans, animals, ecosystem
how to learn about relationships between living things
fossil records, comparative homologies, DNA/RNA sequencing
definition of systematics/phylogeny
study of evolutionary history of living organism
definition of molecular biology
study of processes of replication, transcription, translation, and cell function
who described bacterial transformation
Frederick Griffith
what is bacterial transformation
when bacterial cell dies, it releases it’s components that can then be taken up by a similar cell which will incorporate it
who described DNA as the genetic material
Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty
who described DNA double helix structure
Watson & Crick
who first described base pairing
Chargaff
what are the base pairs in DNA
A=T, G=C
what make up a nucleotide
sugar, phosphate (attached to 5’), nitrogenous base (attached to 1’)
purine bases & shape
A, G; double ring
pyrimidine bases & shape
T, C, U; single ring
what are the base pairs in RNA
A=U, G=C
what is a phosphodiester bond
phosphate group links 2 sugars
structure of the DNA strand
double stranded (2 complimentary, 2 antiparallel), helical (10 base pairs/turn), sugar-phosphate backbone, bases on the inside, stabilized by H bonds)
DNA bidirectional replication process
DNA helicase separates 2 parental strands, replication bubble and fork are made and act as template strands, new nucleotides base pair up starting at the primer, leading strand made, lagging strand & Okazaki fragments made then put back together = 2 new double helices
central dogma of molecular biology
DNA (transcription) -> RNA (translation) -> protein
3 stages of transcription
initiation, elongation, termination
definition of introns
transcribed but not translated
definition of exons
coding sequence found in mature mRNA
definition of codons
groups of 3 nucleotide bases
degenerate means
more than one codon can specify the same amino acid
what are the 3 stop codons
UAA, UAG, UGA
what is the start codon and what does it define
AUG; reading frame
definition of an anticodon
allows binding of tRNA to mRNA codon
RNA processing in eukaryotic cells
pre mRNA spliced to remove introns and exons brought together = mature mRNA
ICZN stands for ______ ; what is it’s function
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature; make sure every animal has a unique and universally accepted scientific name
definition of a genome
all of a living thing’s genetic material (mitochondrial DNA, plasmids, plastids)
mitochondria function
metabolize carbs and fatty acids to produce energy (ATP)
mitochondria history
prokaryotic origin: endosymbiotic bacteria which became organelles during evolution
plasmids
small, circular, double stranded DNA molecule naturally existing in bacteria that give it antibiotic resistance. they can also replicate independently
plastids
double membrane organelle in plants and algae, manufacture and store chemical compounds, endosymbiosis, used as drug targets for chemo i.e.: malaria
horizontal gene transfer definition
host to host transfer of genetic material; plasmids do this
serial endosymbiosis coined by who and what is the process
Lynn Margulis; primary= cyanobacterium existed but then a heterotrophic eukaryote engulfed it and it became red and green algae; secondary= red and green algae were engulfed by other eukaryotes to become even more things
Southern Blotting
DNA hybridization
Northern Blotting
RNA hybridization
Western Blotting
identify specific proteins from a mixture
PCR components
template DNA, oligonucleotide primers (complimentary single stranded DNA), DNTP (A, T, G, C), Taq polymerase (heat stable), correct conditions (i.e.: buffers)
How PCR works
amplification of specific DNA fragments using repeated heating & cooling (steps: denature, anneal, elongation) can run multiple cycles and get TONS of copies
recombinant DNA technology
DNA molecules from different species + insertion into a host = new genetic combinations (cloning with plasmid vector)
RT-PCR
Reverse Transcription PCR; detects RNA expression using 2 steps
Real Time PCR
Quantitative PCR; monitors amplification of a targeted DNA molecule in real time
e-DNA
environmental DNA, metagenomics, next generation sequencing, concept not a technique, i.e.: water and soil samples
definition of immunity
ability of the body to ward off disease through defense mechanisms
definition of a pathogen
bacteria, virus, or microorganism that causes disease
what is the immune system
network of cells, tissues, and organs to protect the body from infection
3 types of immune responses
innate, adaptive, memory
innate immune response
present at birth, occurs immediately, prevent entry, non-specific, no antibodies
adaptive immune response (memory)
remember previous innate assault and protect when encountered a second time; stronger and faster response; also called Anamnestic response
immune memory
saving mature adaptive immune cells for later use
how does the immune system prevent disease
prevent entry, neutralize & remove after entry, destroy body’s own cells that have changed (i.e.: cancer)
3 cellular components of the immune system
bone marrow, myeloid cells, & lymphoid cells
bone marrow contains
stem cells
myeloid cells include
eos, baso, mono, mast, dendritic, macrophages
lymphoid cells include
B cells, T cells, NK (natural killer) cells
origin of immune system components
hematopoietic stem cell -> branched down
primary lymphoid organs
bone marrow, thymus (gland)
secondary lymphoid organs
lymph node, spleen, mucosa
1st line of defense
skin, mucous membranes, tears, saliva, gastric acid, mucus, hair, poop, vomit, ear wax, normal microbiota
2nd line of defense
phagocytes (neutro, eosin, mono, etc.), inflammation, fever, antimicrobial substances
granulocytes mean ______ ; examples
presence of granules in the cytoplasm; i.e.: neutro, eosin, baso, mast
agranulocytes mean _______ ; examples
no granules; i.e.: lymph, mono
which 2 granulocytes are phagocytes
neutrophils & eosinophils
which agranulocyte matures into a macrophage in tissues
monocytes
macrophage in liver
Kupffer cell
macrophage in skin
Langerhan and dendritic
macrophage in brain
microglia
macrophage in bone
osteoclast
macrophage in tissue
histiocyte
cytotoxic T cells function & examples
kill infected cells by using perforin & granzymes; natural killer T cell & gamma T cells
helper T cells
help T and B cells
B cells
produce antibodies
phagocytosis definition and examples
process of ingestion of microorganisms, cellular debris, and nutrients; i.e.: neutro, eosin, mono, macrophages
definition of opsonization
microbe marked for destruction by phagocytes
6 steps of phagocytosis
opsonization, chemotaxis, adherence, ingestion, digestion, elimination
complement purpose and 3 pathways
innate, group of 30+ proteins that start a cascade to destroy microbes via enhanced phagocytosis, inflammation, or MAC; classical, alternate, & Lectin
MAC
Membrane Attack Complex, cytolysis; C5-C9; punches hole in membrane which causes cell death
iron binding proteins
bind iron tightly making it unavailable for bacteria to use
3 types of interferons
alpha, beta, gamma
types of iron binding proteins
transferrin, lactoferrin, ferritin, and hemoglobin
siderophores
within bacteria, sequester iron from the body
*what are interferons & examples
signaling proteins (cytokines) released by host cells in response to infection ; interleukin, tumor necrosis factor
*humoral response pathway
B cells bind to antigen -> proliferate -> clone -> plasma cells -> secrete antibodies into circulation (extracellular)
*cell mediated response
antigen present -> T cell binds to MHC -> cytokines released -> T helper cells activated -> macrophages activated -> cytotoxic T cells activated to lyse pathogen (intracellular & no antibodies used)
*antigen definition
any substance that causes the immune system to produce antibodies against it
*epitope definition
specific piece of an antigen that an antibody binds to
*hapten purpose & example
can’t induce an antibody by itself because small so attaches a carrier molecule to help induce i.e.: Penicillin allergy
*antibody definition & function
proteins, immunoglobulins, produced by plasma cell
*antibody structure
Y shape, 2 identical antigen binding sites, 2 identical heavy chains, 2 identical light chains, constant region, variable region
*Fc region definition & function
fragment crystallized, tail of constant region on an antibody, determines the class of it, interacts with cell surface receptors, can bind with complement or macrophage
*which immunoglobulin is the first responder
IgM
*which immunoglobulin is placental transfer
IgG
*MHC definition and function
Major Histocompatibility Complex; bind to foreign antigens & present them to T cells ON THE OUTSIDE, determines compatibility for organ transplant
*MHC details
multiple genes, expression is codominant, multiple variants
*Class I MHC
present in all nucleated cells; CD8 (cytotoxic T cell)
*Class II MHC
present only on antigen presenting cells; CD4 (helper T cell)
*2 types of T Lymphocytes
T helper cells (bind to class II) & T cytotoxic cells (bind to class I)
*APC definition & function & examples
antigen presenting cells; present antigens to T cells; macrophage, B cells, dendritic, Langerhans
*classical pathway activated when
antibodies bind to the surface of a microbe
*Lectin pathway activated when
carbs, mannose
*alternative pathway activated when
carbs, 80-90%
*agglutination significance for binding antibodies
reduces number of infectious units to deal with in bacteria
*neutralization significance for binding antibodies
blocks adhesions of bacteria & viruses to mucosa, blocks attachment of toxins
*naturally acquired adaptive immunity (active)
antigens enter -> body makes antibodies & lymphocytes
*naturally acquired adaptive immunity (passive)
body has antibodies from placenta or milk
*artificially acquired adaptive immunity (active)
antigens enter through vaccine -> body makes antibodies & lymphocytes
*artificially acquired adaptive immunity (passive)
preformed antibodies in serum injected
