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Biological Anthropology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

anthropology

A
  • the study of the human condition
  • anthropo = humanity
  • ology = study
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2
Q

what are the 4 fields of anthropology?

A

biological, cultural, archaeology, linguistics

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3
Q

biological anthropology

A
  • humans as biological species
  • human and nonhuman (NHP) anatomy, genetics, biology, paleopathology, paleontology
  • forensics, primate behavior and ecology, evolutionary biology
  • evolutionary theory is an underlying theme
  • integrated and interdisciplinary
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4
Q

cultural anthropology

A

human culture

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5
Q

archaeology

A

material culture of humans

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6
Q

linguistics

A

human language

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7
Q

what is the scientific method?

A
  • ask a question
  • do background research
  • construct a hypothesis
  • test your hypothesis by doing an experiment
  • analyze your data and draw a conclusion
  • communicate your results
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8
Q

constructing a hypothesis

A
  • an educated guess
  • if ___, then ___ will happen
  • must be testable and falsifiable
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9
Q

what is the hierarchy of scientific knowledge?

A
  1. paradigm
  2. theory
  3. hypothesis
  4. fact
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10
Q

paradigm

A

universally recognized framework, worldview
- paradigm shifts can shift, science by nature is falsifiable because new facts accumulate

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11
Q

theory

A

an explanation of facts acquired through the scientific method and repeatedly tested and confirmed

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12
Q

hypothesis

A

a proposed explanation for an observation that can be tested, an educated guess

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13
Q

fact

A

an objective and verifiable (and falsifiable) observation

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14
Q

aristotle

A
  • 384-322 BCE in greece
  • extensive knowledge of the existing biosphere (anatomy/physiology, biogeography, domestication, astronomy)
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15
Q

what was the paradigm for almost 2000 years?

A
  • an anthropocentric universe
  • unexplained phenomenon in retrograde motion of planets
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16
Q

copernicus

A

1473-1543 AD
- on the revolution of the celestial spheres
- earth is in orbit around the sun - heliocentric model
- paradigm shift did not happen right away

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17
Q

linnaeus

A
  • 1707 - 1778, sweden
  • systema naturae
  • detailed taxonomy
  • binomial nomenclature
  • assumed fixity of species
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18
Q

fixity of species

A
  • god made the world in 7 days, about 6000 years ago and put animals in their current state onto it
  • no room for evolution
  • what about fossils?
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19
Q

leclerc

A
  • 1707-1788 , france
  • natural history
  • questioned the fixity of species
  • recognized interaction of environment and species - noted that species seemed well adapted to their environments but did not provide a mechanism
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20
Q

cuvier

A
  • 1769-1832. france
  • proposed functionalism and catastrophism
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21
Q

functionalism

A

traits are perfect for their function

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22
Q

catastrophism

A

fossils explained by global catastrophe and more recent creation events

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23
Q

lamarck

A
  • 1744-1829
  • zological philosophy
  • natural processes produce radical changes in living organisms
  • inheritance of acquired characteristics
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24
Q

inheritance of acquired characteristics

A
  • new generation enters the environment
  • changes in environment
  • changes in animals activity/behavior
  • increase/decrease in use f certain body parts
  • life fluids and forces concentrated in used body parts, leave unused parts
  • body part responds to the changes in life fluids, reshaping itself
  • these alterations are passed down to offspring
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25
Q

saint-hilaire

A
  • 1772-1844, france
  • philosophie anatomique
  • homology
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26
Q

homology

A

anatomical parts change shape and size but maintain consistent associations throughout all animals

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27
Q

lyell

A
  • 1797-1875
  • principles of geology
  • uniformitarianism
  • deep time (stratification)
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28
Q

uniformitarianism

A

geological processes are constant through time and space

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29
Q

deep time

A

geology (stratigraphy) indicates that the earth has existed for a long time

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30
Q

evolutionary theory underlies what aspects of biological anthropology?

A
  • comparative anatomy
  • human biology
  • primatology
  • any other questions that ask why different groups have different characteristics
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31
Q

what are the factors that set the stage for evolution?

A
  • traditional approach to understanding the natural world was based on classification
  • geologists such as lyell had demonstrated deep time in the history of the earth and noted existence of fossil organisms
  • fixity of species called into question
  • selective breeding of animals and plants was well-established
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32
Q

selective breeding

A

animals (and plants) with desirable traits are bred with similar animals (speed, conformation, markings)

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33
Q

artificial selection

A

differential fitness within a population, based on heritable traits people like

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34
Q

an essay on the principle of population

A
  • malthus
  • resources are limited
  • when resources are increased, populations will rapidly grow to absorb these
  • eventually the resources will run out
  • when resources are limited, only some will survive
  • this theory inspired lamarck, darwin, and wallace
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35
Q

Lamarck

A
  • zoological philosophy
  • lamarckian evolution
  • natural processes produce radical changes in living organisms
  • vitalism
  • inheritance of acquired characteristics
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36
Q

what are the issues proposed in the inheritance of acquired characteristics?

A
  • many examples of acquired characteristics that are not inherited such as things you learn, things that happen to you, and results of activities
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37
Q

who produced the theory of evolution by natural selection?

A
  • charles darwin
  • alfred russel wallace
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38
Q

charles darwin

A
  • medical school dropout
  • cambridge university divinity degree
  • naturalists abroad the HMS Beagle which took him to the galapagos islands and collected finches
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39
Q

alfred russell wallace

A
  • field naturalist, world traveler, super unlucky
  • observations and malthusian principles leads to idea of natural selection
  • correspondent with darwin
  • the father of biogeography
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40
Q

on the origin of species

A
  • outlines his theory in his book
  • in editions 2-6 he included a preface which discussed all the other people who deserve credit for ideas pertaining to evolution and natural selection
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41
Q

what was darwin’s chain of logic?

A
  • all species have the capacity to increase population size exponentially if all individuals reproduce
  • population size is usually maintained with reasonable limits
  • natural resources are limited
  • since more individuals are produced than can be supported by the available resources there must be a struggle for existence
  • as a consequence only a proportion of the total offspring will survive to reproduce each generation
  • given variation observable in every population and the heritability that variation, those individuals most suited to the environment will have a greater chance of surviving in the struggle for existence. the characteristics of these individuals will be passed on to the next generation through reproduction
  • over numerous generations natural selection may cause gradual changes in the population, eventually leading to the production of new species
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42
Q

natural selection

A
  • acts on individuals
  • evolution acts on populations
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43
Q

what is another term for reproductive success?

A
  • fitness
  • biologically, the term fitness does not refer to strength, ability, agility, etc. it simply refer to an individual’s survival and reproduction
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44
Q

what are some examples of natural selection?

A
  • darwin’s finches
  • dark and light morph of the peppered moth (smoke released into the environment)
  • nylon-eating bacterium (frame shift mutation - no longer eat sugar)
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45
Q

Gregor Mendel

A
  • bohemian monk
  • performed experiments on peas to discover basic laws of inheritance
  • publishes work in 1866 that was largely over looked at the time
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46
Q

what traits did Gregor Mendel study with pea plants?

A
  • height (tall or short)
  • seed color (green or yellow)
  • flower color (purple or white)
  • flower branching (axial or terminal)
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47
Q

how did Gregor Mendel reproduce the pea plants?

A
  • self-fertilization
  • cross fertilization
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48
Q

Principles of Inheritance

A
  • principle of segregation
  • principle of dominance
  • principles of independent assortment
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49
Q

principle of segregation

A
  • offspring were either tall or short; there was no blending of traits
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50
Q

alleles

A
  • each parent contributes one copy of a gene
  • alleles that are physically expressed are dominant
  • alleles that are hidden are recessive
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51
Q

dominant

A
  • traits are goverened by an allele that can be expressed in the presence of another allele
  • dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles
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52
Q

recessive

A
  • traits are not expressed in the presence of a dominant allele
  • for a recessive allele to be expressed, there must usually be two copies of the recessive allele
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53
Q

homozygous

A
  • when two copies of the same allele are present
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54
Q

heterozygous

A
  • individuals that have two different alleles at a locus
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55
Q

how do mendelian traits appear?

A

often appear as an all or nothing trait
- one locus = one trait
- one expression of that trait

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56
Q

incomplete domiance

A

the expressed physical trait is a combination of the dominant and recessive trait
- blending

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57
Q

co-dominance

A

both traits are expressed side-by-side, not blended

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58
Q

what are the forms of trait dominance?

A
  • complete dominance
  • incomplete dominance
  • co-dominance
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59
Q

what are some examples of mendelian traits?

A
  • tongue roller/non-roller
  • widow’s peak
  • attached earlobes
  • hitch-hiker’s thumb
  • mid-digit hair
  • chin dimple
  • freckles
  • morton’s toe
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60
Q

what is an example of a dominant trait disease?

A

achondroplasia (dwarfism)

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61
Q

what is an example of a recessive trait disease?

A

albinism

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62
Q

what are some patterns of inheritance?

A
  • autosomal dominant
  • autosomal recessive
  • X-linked dominant
  • X-linked recessive
  • Y-linked
  • mitochondrial
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63
Q

where does an organism grow?

A
  • single-cell zygote
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64
Q

how many chromosomes do humans have?

A
  • 23 maternal and 23 paternal
  • pair of sex chromosomes
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65
Q

autosomes

A
  • one of two possible maternal alleles and one of two possible paternal alleles
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66
Q

mitochondrial genes

A

sperm transfers almost no mitochondria so only maternal genes

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67
Q

what are some non-mendelian traits?

A
  • many traits are polygenic
  • eye color and skin color
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68
Q

what has a major role in regulating the expression of phenotypes?

A

environments

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69
Q

non-mendelian (polygenic) traits are influenced by what?

A
  • influenced by more than one gene
  • environment influences expression of traits
  • phenotypes have a continuous spectrum of expression
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70
Q

mendelian traits are influenced by what?

A
  • influenced by one gene
  • environment has little effect
  • discrete phenotypes
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71
Q

August Weismann

A
  • does mouse experiments that challenges the Lamarckian idea of inheritance
  • based on his results, he proposes a “germ plasm” theory of inheritance
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72
Q

germ plasm

A
  • august weismann
  • becomes shorthand for the heritable unit for several subsequent decades
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73
Q

early drosophilists

A
  • rediscover mendel’s work while trying to figure out the germ plasm
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74
Q

who coined the word gene?

A
  • coined by danish botanists Wilhelm Johannsen
  • shorthand for describing mendel’s units of heredity but we still have no idea what it is
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75
Q

when were mendelian genetics generally accepted?

A
  • by 1925
  • 2.5 decades after the fruit fly
  • still don’t know what a gene is or how any of this works
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76
Q

who took the first image of DNA?

A
  • rosalin franklin takes an x-ray image
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77
Q

genome

A

the entire set of DNA of an organism

78
Q

chromosome

A

the physical structure that contains genes

79
Q

gene

A
  • the fundamental unit of heredity
  • sequence of bases that provides information for the formation of a protein and occupies a certain locus
80
Q

alleles

A

different versions of the same gene

81
Q

mutations

A
  • changes to the sequence
  • may produce visible difference between individuals
  • important means of introducing biological variation
82
Q

microevolution

A

the process by which organisms change in small ways over time, usually refers to small changes in populations

83
Q

macroevolution

A

refers to larger-scale evolutionary changes that result in new species

84
Q

what are the 5 mechanisms of microevolution that are also sources of variation?

A
  • mutation
  • non-random mating
  • natural selection
  • gene flow
  • genetic drift
85
Q

evolution

A
  • a change in allele frequency in a given population over time
  • variation is introduced at multiple levels
86
Q

where does variation occur in a mutation?

A

occurs at level of gene or chromosome

87
Q

where does variation occur in non-random mating?

A

occurs at level of population

88
Q

where does variation occur in natural selection?

A

occurs at level of individual

89
Q

where does variation occur in gene flow?

A

occurs at level of population

90
Q

where does variation occur in genetic drift?

A

occurs at level of population

91
Q

what are the changes in allele frequency that can occur?

A
  • direction
  • non-directional (random)
92
Q

what are the patterns of selection?

A
  • normal distribution
  • stabilizing selection
  • directional selection
  • disruptive selection
93
Q

mutation

A

a spontaneous change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

94
Q

what are mutagens?

A
  • external factors that increase the risk of mutations
  • examples: some chemicals (like smoking), x-rays, UV light
95
Q

what is the range of effect of mutations?

A
  • lethal
  • neutral
  • beneficial
96
Q

what is the benefit of having sickle cell anemia?

A
  • protects from the worst effects of malaria
  • however, sickle-cell anemia causes extreme pain and pre-mature adult death
97
Q

non-random mating

A
  • can change population genetic structure
  • causes genotype frequencies to differ between populations
98
Q

what are the two types of non-random mating?

A
  • disassortative mating
  • assortative mating
99
Q

assortative mating

A
  • mates are genetically similar, preference for similar phenotypes
  • inbreeding, self-pollination
100
Q

does assortative mating lead to more or less variation in subsequent generations?

A
  • less
  • less alleles in a population gene pool
  • more chance of extinction due to reduced variation
101
Q

what are some examples of assortative mating in humans?

A
  • dwarfs - very high positive assortative mating - individuals with achondroplastic dwarfism pair up much more often than would be expected by chance
  • IQ - slight positive assortative mating
  • height - slight positive assortative mating
102
Q

disassortative mating

A

mates are genetically different
- mating preference for different phenotypes

103
Q

does disassortative mating lead to more or less variation in subsequent generations?

A
  • more
  • increased genotypic diversity
  • increased chance of heterozygosity in subsequent generations
  • more possible genotypes
104
Q

natural selection

A
  • differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotypes
105
Q

what are some examples of natural selection acting in modern human populations?

A
  • lactose tolerance - results from a mutation to continue producing lactase that took place in Hungary 7,500 years ago. more 75% of humans are still lactose intolerant
  • wisdom teeth - overall pattern in hominin evolution of reduced prognathism and jaw musculature. now 1-4 of humans are missing atleast one wisdom tooth
106
Q

gene flow

A
  • process of genetic exchange between populations - migration of alleles from one population to another
  • this may change the allele frequencies in one or more of the participating populations
  • a potential source of locally new genetic material
107
Q

genetic drift

A
  • fluctuations in allele frequencies in a given population simply due to the random nature of the inheritance process and other chance events
  • most dramatic in small populations or among rare alleles
108
Q

what can genetic drift lead to?

A
  • trait fixation - especially in small populations
  • once an allele reaches 0 or 100%, it becomes fixed
109
Q

founder effect

A
  • types of genetic drift
  • establishment of a new population by a small subset of the original population
  • the allele frequency in the founder subset - the surviving population - establishes the allele frequency of the new population
  • any disproportionate frequency of alleles in the founder subset will cause the new population to be different from the original population (variation among populations)
110
Q

what is the taxonomy of living things?

A
  • domain
  • kingdom
  • phylum
  • class
  • order
  • family
  • genus
  • species
  • dear king phillip came over for good soup
111
Q

binomial naming

A
  • every species has a unique scientific name that consists of tow parts - its genus and species
112
Q

what is a species?

A
  • there are many different concepts as to what a species is
  • morphological species concept
  • biological species concept
113
Q

morphological species concept

A
  • species are the smallest groups that are consistently and persistently distinct, and distinguishable by ordinary means
  • used from linnaeus to now
  • practical in everyday use - field guilds
114
Q

what are the steps in recognizing and naming a species?

A
  1. collect as many individual specimens as you can
  2. closely describe all specimens - develop standard traits useful in characterizing similarities ad differences between individuals
  3. group specimens by some measure of similarity as objectively and consistently as possible
  4. formally name a grouping of individuals as members of a single species distinct from other generally similar groupings
115
Q

what does grouping depend on?

A
  • which species definition you are using
116
Q

how do you name members of a species?

A
  • conventions come from the international convention on zoological nomenclature
  • genus: must be treated as a latin singular noun, unique within each kingdom
  • species - used to have to be an adjective but no longer
  • cannot name a species after yourself
117
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of the morphological species concept?

A
  • strengths: can be applied to all organisms - living, extinct, asexual
  • weaknesses: relies on somewhat arbitrary traits, can fail to split actual species (because they converged on similar morphologies), or split species (because they are highly variable
118
Q

what influence did Darwin have on the Linnaean classification system?

A
  • being in the same kingdom, phylum, or other taxon as another organism means that you are more closely related to that organism than you are to other organisms outside that taxa
119
Q

how do you read a phylogenic tree?

A
  • capital letters = species
  • numbers = nodes, and represent shared ancestors
120
Q

biological species concept

A
  • species are grups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups
  • species are able to produce fertile offspring
  • ernst mayr, 1942, systematics and the origin of species
121
Q

what are the strengths and weaknesses of the biological species concept?

A
  • strengths: considers genetic relatedness (ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring)
  • weaknesses: does not apply to asexual species, very difficult to establish at times
122
Q

what steps might lead to slowing or stopping of the exchange of genes among individuals?

A
  • differentiation
  • reproductive isolation
  • reinforcement
123
Q

differentiation

A

individuals diverge in some way related to their survival and reproduction

124
Q

reproductive isolation

A

something happens to make mating between these different types of individuals unlikely

125
Q

reinforcement

A

isolating mechanisms strengthen, making successful mating between the types less and less likely

126
Q

reinforcement mechanisms are independent evolutionary changes that change through what?

A
  • different random mutations
  • reproduction (recombination)
  • natural selection under differing environments
  • genetic drift in small populations
127
Q

what is the anatomical positioning?

A

standing, face forward, arms at side of the body, palms forward, toes forward

128
Q

what are the three anatomical planes?

A

sagittal, coronal, and transverse

129
Q

what is the sagittal plane?

A

across the body down the midline

130
Q

what is the coronal plane?

A

across the body down the line of the skull

131
Q

what is the transverse plane?

A

slicing the body in half

132
Q

what are the relationships to all of the positions?

A
  • are all relative
  • right and left pertains to the organism and not the observer
133
Q

superior

A

anything above

134
Q

inferior

A

anything below

135
Q

lateral

A

away from the midline

136
Q

medial

A

toward the midline

137
Q

proximal

A

closer to the torso or linear feature

138
Q

distal

A

away from the torso

139
Q

posterior

A

back

140
Q

anterior

A

front

141
Q

what is the front for non-humans?

A

ventral

142
Q

what is the back for non-humans?

A

dorsal

143
Q

back of the hand

A

dorsal

144
Q

front of the hand

A

palmar

145
Q

front of the foot

A

dorsal

146
Q

back of the foot

A

plantar

147
Q

what are the two ways to study anatomy?

A

anatomical regions or anatomical systems

148
Q

what are the anatomical regions?

A
  • head and neck
  • thorax
  • abdomen
  • pelvis
  • perineum
  • back
  • upper limb
  • lower limb
149
Q

what is regional anatomy?

A
  • study one particular part of the body
  • normally study segments that are separated by joints
  • intensively study structure and function
150
Q

what are the segments of the lower limb?

A

glutes
- thigh
- leg (calf)
- foot

151
Q

what are the segments of the upper limb?

A
  • shoulder
  • arm (bicep)
  • forearm
  • hand
152
Q

what are the anatomical systems?

A
  • integumentary
  • gastrointestinal
  • respiratory
  • urinary
  • reproductive
  • endocrine
  • circulatory
  • nervous
  • muscoskeletal
153
Q

what is systemic anatomy?

A
  • more so used in the medical community
  • used when studying living organisms
154
Q

why is embryology so important?

A
  • the framework behind anatomical systems
  • many embryos start the same
  • identifying systems start the same and develop through embryology
155
Q

inegumentary system

A
  • skin, hair, and nails
  • hair and nails are derived from the skin
156
Q

gastrointestinal system

A
  • pharynx
  • esophagus
  • stomach
  • liver
  • pancreas
  • small intestine
  • large intestine
  • rectum
  • anus
157
Q

how does the gastrointestinal system form?

A
  • the GI system develops as a simple gut tube
  • complexity is related to functional specializations
158
Q

respiratory system

A
  • pharynx
  • larynx
  • trachea
  • bronchi
  • lungs
159
Q

how does the respiratory system form?

A

the respiratory system develops as a branch off the embryonic gut tube

160
Q

urinary system

A
  • kidneys
  • ureter
  • bladder
  • urethra
161
Q

what is the function of the urinary system?

A
  • the urinary system removes fluid and metabolic waste from the bloodstream
162
Q

reproductive system in males

A
  • gonads = testes
  • ducts = ductus deferens (prostate)
  • external genitalia = penis, scrotum
163
Q

reproductive system in females

A
  • gonads = ovaries
  • ducts = uterine tubes, uterus, vaginal canal
  • external genitalia = clitoris, labia
164
Q

how do the male and female reproductive organs form as an embryo?

A
  • humans are sexually indifferent until 6 weeks of development
  • male and female structures are derived from the same set of indifferent embryonic structures
165
Q

urogenital system in the embryo

A
  • the renal and reproductive systems develop from the same set of structures
  • most non-mammals do not separate these tracts - birds are an example of this
166
Q

what is the job of the endocrine system?

A

secretes horomones

167
Q

circulatory system

A
  • heart
  • arteries - deliver blood to the body via the aorta
  • veins - deliver blood to the heart
  • lymphatic
168
Q

nervous system

A
  • brain
  • spinal cord
  • peripheral nervous
169
Q

lymphatic system

A

collect fluids and put back into the circulatory system

170
Q

peripheral nervous

A

includes special senses such as smell and taste
- extends from the brain and spinal cord
- sensory, mechanical, olfactory

171
Q

what are the main three parts of the brain?

A
  • cerebrum
  • cerebellum
  • brainstem
172
Q

cerebrum

A

higher order functions
- memory, speech, social interactions

173
Q

cerebellum

A
  • balance and other complex motor function
174
Q

brainstem

A
  • regulation of basic function (breathing, eating, blinking)
175
Q

what are the three types of muscles?

A
  • skeletal (striated)
  • smooth
  • cardiac
176
Q

what are the kinds of connective tissue?

A
  • bone (the skeleton is one kind)
  • ligaments
  • fascia
  • tendons
177
Q

musculoskeletal system

A

skeletal muscle system and many connective tissue

178
Q

axial skeleton

A

the bones of the head and trunk
- skull
- spine
- sacrum
- ribs
- sternum

179
Q

appendicular skeleton

A

the bones of the limbs
- pectoral girdle (clavicle and scapula)
- pelvic girdle (innominates)

180
Q

what is the difference between the skull and cranium?

A
  • the skull includes the whole head
  • the cranium does not include the mandible
181
Q

what are the developmental regions of the cranium?

A
  • neurocranium
  • basicranium
  • viscerocranium
182
Q

what are the two sets of teeth?

A
  • deciduous
  • permanent
183
Q

what are the four types of teeth? how do they follow the dental formula?

A
  • incisors
  • canines
  • premolars
  • molars
  • 2-1-2-3, the amount in one quarter, in the order above
184
Q

hyoid

A
  • midline
  • suspended in the throat by ligaments
185
Q

ear ossicles

A
  • malleus
  • incus
  • stapes
  • suspended in cocular fluid
186
Q

what are the bones of the upper limb?

A
  • clavicle
  • scapula
  • humerus
  • radius
  • ulna
  • carpals
  • metacarpals
  • phalanges
187
Q

what are the bones of the lower limb?

A
  • innominate
  • femur
  • patella
  • fibula
  • tibia
  • tarsals
  • metatarsals
  • phalanges
188
Q

innominate

A
  • ilium
  • ischium
  • pubis
  • acetabulum = ball and socket that fits the femular ball
189
Q

what are some things to remember about bone?

A
  • bone is an organ and dynamic tissue that remodels in response to biomechanical loading and associated soft tissue structures
190
Q

allopatric speciation

A

occurs when a species separates into two separate groups which are isolated from one another. A physical barrier, such as a mountain range or a waterway, makes it impossible for them to breed with one another

191
Q

parapatric speciation

A

a species is spread out over a large geographic area. Although it is possible for any member of the species to mate with another member, individuals only mate with those in their own geographic region

192
Q

sympatric speciation

A

occurs when there are no physical barriers preventing any members of a species from mating with another, and all members are in close proximity to one another. A new species, perhaps based on a different food source or characteristic, seems to develop spontaneously. The theory is that some individuals become dependent on certain aspects of an environment—such as shelter or food sources—while others do not

Biological Anthropology (7 decks)

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