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Gateway > EVO > Flashcards

EVO Flashcards

1
Q

What is Teleology?

A

Everything has a final cause in nature, and are designed with a purpose.

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2
Q

What was Aristotles theory?

A

Teleology

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3
Q

What was Linnaeus theory?

A

Taxonomy and Binomial Nomenculture.

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4
Q

What was the Hutton theory?

A

Gradualism and Deep Time

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5
Q

What was Lamarck’s theory?

A

Inheritance

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6
Q

What was Cuviers theory?

A

Extinction and Palaeontology

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7
Q

What was St. Hilaires theory?

A

Homology (but the term wasnt created by him)

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8
Q

What was Lyells theory?

A

Uniformatarism

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9
Q

What was Darwins theory?

A

Natural selection, leading to Metaphysical Naturalism

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10
Q

What 4 things happened after Darwin?

A

> End of teleology
Gradualism
Human primate relationship considered
Uniformatarism accepted

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11
Q

What six points did the Origin of Species make?

A 
> Domestication
> Natural selection
> Geology
> Diversity
> Gradualism
> Sexual behaviour
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12
Q

What does Homology mean?

A

A very similar trait which is present in two species, due to sharing a common ancestor

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13
Q

What four points did the evolution theory consider?

A

> Homology
Development
Vestigial organs
The fossil record

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14
Q

Features of the evolutionary process?

A

> Gradual
Non random
Biological traits become mkre or less common
Greater fitness means greater reproductive success

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15
Q

What evolutionary propositions were put forward?

A

> More offspring produced than survived
Intraspecies competition
Variation between individuals within a species
Favoured traits will increase in frequency
Genetic drift is a chanced change in the allele frequency

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16
Q

What are the five selection modes?

A 
> Stabilizing 
> Directional 
> Diversification
> Sexual 
> Artificial
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17
Q

What is the law of dominance?

A

Parents with pure and contrasting traits are crossed to produce a heterozygous offspring only showing the dominant allele

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18
Q

What is the law of segregation?

A

Alleles responsible for a trait seperate during gamete formation

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19
Q

What does Independent assortment mean?

A

The random orientation of chromosomes at the equator during metaphase 1 leads to the random distribution of the alleles.

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20
Q

What are the exceptions of independent assortment (when does it not happen)?

A

> linkage
unnatural inheritance
dihybrid inheritance

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21
Q

What is the chromosomal theory of inheritance?

A

> Nuclear substance controls cells form and function.
Haploid gametes produced - in order to combine during fertilization.
Inheritance patterns linked by the position of genes a chromosome.

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22
Q

What 6 types of gene mutations are there?

A 
> Substitution
> Deletion
> Duplication
> Insertion
> Horizontal gene transfer
> Structural changes
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23
Q

What happens when mutation frequency increases?

A

Speciation increases.

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24
Q

Name three examples of mutations in animals?

A

> Naked Mole Rat
Gray horses
Bovine Chrond. Dwarfism

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25
Q

What is unit of heredity?

A

Evolution depends o the allele frequency changes, and this enables populatioms to continue through time

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26
Q

What is the hardy-weinberg principle?

A

A principle that can work out whether or not a population is evolving.

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27
Q

What is the Bottleneck effect?

A

A drastic change in population size, where the survivors must have had a different genotype to the rest of the population.

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28
Q

What is the Founder Effect?

A

When individuals from a population move to form a new population, and therefore, species with a different allele frequency.

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29
Q

Name some disadvantages of domestication?

A

> There are only certain traits selected - restricts gene flow.
Restricts variation.

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30
Q

What are the 4 rules of Natural Selection?

A

> Organisms are genetically varied.
At least one trait from the parent is inherited by the offspring.
Some will have increased breeding and survival success than others.
Some traits will be favoured more than others, thus lasting longer in the population.

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31
Q

What were the 5 main discoveries which led up tothe modern synthesis?

A 
> Micro macro evolution
> Palaeontology 
> Population genetics
> Taxonomy
> Mutational Analysis
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32
Q

What is mutational analysis?

A

The study of inheritance of a mutation through generations

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33
Q

What two discoveries did the modern synthesis connect together?

A

Genes and selection mechanisms

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34
Q

What are the 4 rules of the modern synthesis?

A

> Variation is down to chance, by gene segregation, recombination and mutation
Diversification due to speciation
Changes in genes have phenotyoic effect
Evolution causes gene frequency changes, due to genetic drift, gene flow and natural selection

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35
Q

What is allopatric speciation?

A

> Geographical isolation

> Have different selection pressures due to occupying two different areas.

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36
Q

What is sympatric speciation?

A

> Ecological barriers

> Differences in food, time of day they are active ect

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37
Q

What is parapatric speciation?

A

> Overlapping territories

> Differences in behaviour, human population, mutations, selection pressures abiotic factors.

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38
Q

What are 3 differences between the modern sythesis and darwinian evolution?

A

> Polygenic genes mostly determine variation between individuals in a population.
More than one selection mechanisms, not just natural selection.
Gradual changes are made up of lots of microevolutions to make up one macroevolution.

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39
Q

What is a polygenic inheritance ?

A

inheritance occurs when one characteristic is controlled by two or more genes.

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40
Q

What is microevolution?

A

Change in allele frequency of a population over time which eventually leads to a relatively small change in the species, which can sometimes lead of speciation.

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41
Q

What is macroevolution?

A

A major change in a lineage which can lead to the origin, diversifiction or extinction of a major group.

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42
Q

How can we measure diversity?

A

The total numbet of taxa

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43
Q

How can we measure disparity?

A

Differences between taxa

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44
Q

Give a brief history through time (13)?

A 
> Origin
> Photosynthesis
> Multicellular cells
> Cambian explosion
> Silerian
> Denovian
> Permian
> Reptiles and dinos
> Mass extinction
> Mammals 
> Grassland
> Ancestoral humans
> Ice age
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45
Q

What are the 5 mass extinctions?

A 
> Ordovician -> Silerian
> Late devonian
> Permian -> triassic
> Triassic -> jurassic
> Cretaceous -> tertiary
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46
Q

What are the three fauna which are seen to be the 3 mass originations?

A

> Cambrian
Paleozoic
Modern

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47
Q

What is anagenesis?

A

Gradual transformation of one species into another

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48
Q

What is Cladogenesis?

A

Splitting of a species into two or more lineages along the tree

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49
Q

What is punctuated evolutionay pace?

A

When stasis occurs, isolation occurs, and this allows for rapid changes due to the smaller populations and thus, the smaller gene pool.

50
Q

What are the 7 stages of punctuated equilibria?

A

> Stasis of evolution.
Isolation mechanism.
Rapid change and strong selection of small populations
No preservation of transitional fossils
Reintroduction of isolated populations and sister lineage
Expansions and stasis is isolated population - outcompetes sister
Preservation of isolated population which grows and allows stasis to begin again.

51
Q

What is punctuated equilibria?

A

Theory that the evolution of species proceeds with long periods of relative stability interspersed with rapid change.

52
Q

How can a trend be identified?

A

> Good fossil record

> Known evolutionary relationships

53
Q

What is Copes rule?

A 
Lineages tend to increase in body size over evolutionary time due to:
> Dominate resources
> Dominate opponents
> Higher breeding success
> Higher survival rate
> Better fitness
54
Q

What is direct competitive exclusion?

A

The increase in clade 2 causes the decrease in clade 1

55
Q

What is incumbent replacement?

A

Clade1 extinction causes the diversification of clade 2

56
Q

What is Bergmanns rule?

A

> Larger size = Colder climates (smaller SA:V ratio –> maintain temperature easier)
Smaller size = warmer climates

57
Q

What is Allens rule?

A

Colder climates = smaller appendages (limbs)

58
Q

Is it abiotic or biotic that determines microevolution and why?

A

> Biotic

> Causes smaller changes

59
Q

Is macroevolution biotic or abiotic?

A

> Abiotic

> due to the environment being able to cause rapid changes in a species

60
Q

What are 4 examples of prezygotic barriers and what does it mean?

A 
Inhibits mating
> Habitat
> Behavioural
> Temporal
> Mechanical
61
Q

What is postzygotic barriers and what are 4 examples of it?

A

Inhibits fertilisation or formation of healthy embryo - Hybrid viability reduced
> Gamete incompatibility
> Hybrid sterilisation
> Hybrid mortality (not enough DNA; cells divide mitotically but then die )
> Hybrid breakdown (limited times to reproduce)

62
Q

What does hybridisation mean?

A

The act or process of mating organisms of different varieties or species to create a hybrid.

63
Q

What are the 3 outcomes of hybridisation and explain what they mean?

A 
Reinforcement = prevents the gene flow
Fusion = extinction of gene pool stopped as the gene flow is continued 
Stability = allows some gene flow but not enoughto allow the species to diverge
64
Q

Define a species?

A

Group of organisms which all descended from a common ancestor, and who have common defining traits - they can interbreed to create fertile offspring.

65
Q

What 6 points are needed for speciation to occur?

A 
> Variation
> Isolation
> Decreased gene flow
> Selection
> Divergence
> Speciation
66
Q

What sources of random variation are there?

A 
> Mutation
> Regulation 
> Duplication
> Segregation
> recombination
> Independent assortment
67
Q

What sources of non random variation are there?

A

> Ontogeny
Heterochrony
Phenotypic plasticity
Allometry

68
Q

What does ontogeny mean?

A

Development or course of development especially of an individual organism.

69
Q

What does Heterochrony mean?

A

Evolved differences in developmental timing.

70
Q

What are the 4 models of heterochrony?

A

> Hypermorphosis = prolonged relative growth
Acceleration = faster relative growth
Progenesis = fore shortened relative growth
Neoteny = slow relative growth

71
Q

What is peramorphosis and what produces it?

A

> Exaggeration of adult characteristics

> Caused by hypermorphosis and acceleration

72
Q

What is paedomorphosis and what causes it?

A

> Retention of juvenile characteristics

> Produced by progenesis and neoteny

73
Q

What is dispersal?

A

Smaller population of main species crosses barrier from acesteral to new area and then speciation occurs.

74
Q

What is vicariance?

A

The division of a group by a geographic barrier, often resulting in the evolution of related species on either side of the barrier.

75
Q

What is archipelago speciation?

A

Dispersal from ancestral land to another then again and the process continues until speciation occures on each island.

76
Q

Whats a ring species?

A

Neighbouring populations connected in a series where each can interbreed with the adjacent species but the starting and ending species are reproductively isolated due to being very morphologically different.

77
Q

What is competitve exclusion?

A

Two species differing their ecological niches to accommodate and coexist in a stable environment.

78
Q

What is character displacement?

A

A phenomenon in which species that live together in the same environment tend to diverge in those characteristics that overlap. Darwins finches seed eaters.

79
Q

When do we use phylogentic systematics?

A

When we want to compare multiple taxa.

80
Q

What is a cladogram?

A

diagram used in cladistics which shows relations among organisms.

81
Q

What is synapormorphy?

A

> Homology features

> Feature that shows we are all related

82
Q

What is plesiomorphy?

A

> Shared trait which are primitive and are present in ancestors.

83
Q

What is homoplasty?

A

> Convergent evolution
Analogous trait
Evolves multiple times

84
Q

What are the advahtages of phylogenetic systematics?

A 
> Quantitive
> Simple
> Computers used
> Evolutionary
> Parsimonious
> Can use different types of data
85
Q

Name 4 problems with the phylogenetic systematics?

A

> Isnt objective
No ancestors identified
Hybridization and lateral gene transfer
Evolution may not be parsimonious

86
Q

Why is development important in evolutionary biology?

A

When an embryo is developing, there are similaritiesin the morphologies between the species and these commonalities can reflect common ancestry

87
Q

How is development achieved?

A

Gene regulation

88
Q

What is the theory of biogeography?

A

Larger the area - the more species.

89
Q

What are the features of colonizing organisms?

A

> Adaptive radiation

> Endemic species

90
Q

Why does the island rule happen?

A 
Islands tend to have :
> Limited resources
> Reduced predation
> Need to be bigger to be able to compete and gain the resources as much as possible due to the limitation of it.
> Interspecies competition
> Optimal body size
91
Q

What are the 3 exceptions to the island rule?

A

> Bears ➡ gigantism
Carnivores vary
Rabbits ➡ dwarf

92
Q

Why are elephants such good swimmers and why does this help with their diversity?

A

> Aquatic ancestors
Took to water to take the load off their skeleton.
Trunk and elastic lungs enables them to take deep breaths from their trunk with minimal effort
This helps with their dispersal as they can move to new islands easier.

93
Q

Give evidence of how birds breathed?

A

> Pneumatic bones show air sacs were present.

> These were present in dinosaurs

94
Q

Give evidence on how birds developed flight?

A

> Raised knobs on the ulna for feather attachment.

> Ligaments prevented the feather being lost in flight.

95
Q

What where feathers used for prior to flight?

A 
> Insolation.
> Communication.
> Camouflage.
> Water repellent.
> Defence.
96
Q

What are the functions of predigits in elephant feet?

A

> Stiffen
Reduce stress
Transfer loads
More flat footed - load bearing

97
Q

What are the stages involved in the primordial soup?

A 
> Chemically reducing atmosphere
> Energy exposure
> Simple organic compounds produced
> Concentrations varied
> Complex organic polymers produced
98
Q

What is panspermia?

A

The belief that there was an extraterrestrial origin of life

99
Q

What was the Miller-Urey experiment? And why could this not be true ?

A

> Urey believed that the early atmosphere was made up of methane, ammonia and hydrogen
Miller put together water vapour, gas and an electric spark and created amino acids.
However, there is no evidence of ammonia or methane in the early atmosphere

100
Q

Briefly describe the properties of hydrothermal vents?

A 
> Reverse krebs cycle
> Acts as cell membrane
> Extreme conditions
> Low oxygen concentration
> Heat energy released as hot mineral rich water
101
Q

What are mid oceanic ridges and vents caused by?

A

Sea floor spreading due to shift in plate tectonics

102
Q

What are the 3 domains of life?

A

> Bacteria
Archaea
Eukaryotic

103
Q

What does symbiosis mean?

A

A long term interaction between two biological species for a mutual benefit

104
Q

How did eukaryotes become aerobic and photosynthetic?

A

An ancestor engulfed a prokaryote which had a mitochondrion and chloroplast

105
Q

What is the animalia hypothesis?

A

Cells developed specialised cells and gastrulated.

106
Q

What are choanoflagellates ?

A 
> Unicellular
> Flagellated eukaryotes
> Microvilli collar
> Closest relative to metazoans
> Similar to sea sponges
107
Q

What is the disadvantage of asexual reproduction?

A

They collect deleterious mutations through time and genetic loading occurs ; the population will go extinct

108
Q

What is the advantage of sexual reproduction ?

A

As the genetic material gets recombines, there is a prevention of the deleterious mutations building up

109
Q

What did thecambrien explosion lead to?

A 
> Predation
> Taxonomic diversity
> Morphological disparity
> Body plans
> Lifestyles
> Community function and structure
> Benthic zone - bottom of de sea
> Pelagic - middle region of de sea
110
Q

What are a few of the tiggers for the cambrien explosion?

A

> Glaciation
Upwelling of oceans -> increase oxygen levels
Mutation in the hox gene -> changes morphology and development constraints.

111
Q

Definition of a agenesis ?

A

Gradual change involving mini changes, and when the changes are sufficient enough,this leads to speciation

112
Q

What is a dichotomy?

A

A fully resolved phylogenetic tree

113
Q

What is a polygons ?

A

An incomplete/unresolved phylogenetic tree

114
Q

What is monophyletic ?

A

The group in question and all the ancestors and species included

115
Q

What is paraphyletic ?

A

Organisms which are like the species in question, and share the same common ancestor

116
Q

What is ployphyly?

A

Organisms which shouldn’t be grouped together on a phylogenetic tree even though they share similar features.

117
Q

What are the uses of cladograms (5)?

A 
> Classification
> biogeographical analysis
> Paleo hypothesis
> Character sequencing
> Reconstructing diversity patterns and seek how species have changed.
118
Q

What evolved first, swim bladders or lungs?

A

Lungs -> intermediate -> swim bladders

119
Q

What is the main reason for evolutionary trees?

A

Depict recency of common ancestry

120
Q

What is ‘Mullers ratchet’ ?

A

bad mutations building up in DNA over time - sex stops this.

121
Q

What is genetic polymorphism?

A

Different phenotypes

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