EU external action Flashcards

Question

Trade policy facts and figures

Answer 1

* - The EU is the largest economy in the world. Although growth is projected to be slow, the EU remains the largest economy in the world with a GDP per head of €25 000 for its 440 million consumers. * - The EU is the world's largest trading block and biggest trade partner for 80 countries (compared to 20 for the US). The EU ranks first in both inbound and outbound international investments *  The average applied tariff for goods imported into the EU is very low. More than 70% of imports enter the EU at zero or reduced tariffs.  The EU’s services markets are highly open and we have arguably the most open investment regime in the world. - Trade in services accounts for 25% of the EU’s GDP, with services exports exceeding €900 billion per year. It also supports 21 million EU jobs directly or indirectly.

Answer 2

* - By acting together as one, EU countries benefit from increased negotiating power when making trade deals with other countries. * - The EU negotiates trade agreements to strengthen our economy and create jobs. * EU trade agreements help to do that in two ways. Trade agreements let European businesses:  access more easily and at lower prices the raw materials and other inputs they need. This helps them stay competitive.  compete more effectively abroad and export more to countries and regions outside the EU - In addition, projecting our rules and values in trade agreements helps the EU shape globalisation, especially on issues like human rights, working conditions and environmental protection.

Answer 3

Process after the Lisbon Treaty Trade Negotiations: 1. First, the European Commission requests authorisation from the Council of the EU ('the Council') to negotiate a trade agreement with a trade partner. The Council's authorisation can include 'directives'. These are often referred to as the 'mandate' and set out what the Commission should achieve in the agreement. 2. Then the Commission negotiates with the trading partner on behalf of the EU. 3. Once the Commission completes the negotiations, it publishes the agreement and presents the deal to the Council and the European Parliament. 4. The Council and the European Parliament examine the final deal and decide whether or not to approve it. 5. If they both approve, the EU can sign the agreement. The partner can then ratify this signed agreement, after which the Council can declare the agreement concluded. 6. If the trade agreement covers areas where EU countries have responsibility, it can only be fully concluded after EU countries also ratify and sign the agreement **Effects of Lisbon:** - Parliament's powers have increased significantly – it is now co-legislator with the Council on trade matters. - Foreign direct investment is now an EU power under trade policy, i.e. the EU can both conclude international agreements and adopt autonomous measures on FDI. - Qualified majority voting becomes the general rule in Council for all aspects of trade policy, Unanimity is required **only in the following specific circumstances:** * where commitments on cultural/audiovisual services risk undermining the EU’s cultural and linguistic diversity * where commitments on social, educational or health services risk seriously disturbing the national organisation of these services and impeding member governments' ability to deliver them * where unanimity is required for the adoption of internal rules

Answer 4

The TPR has emerged against a backdrop of various global challenges to trade, such as: climate change, COVID-19 recoveries, international political tensions, global supply-chains issues, and digitalisation. The EU’s trade policy aims to support the European Green Deal and Digital Strategy goals and reinforce the EU’s geopolitical ambitions and resilience through open strategic autonomy. OSA entails: * Reinforcing the EU Single Market’s openness and attractiveness; * Assessing and supporting supply chain sustainability and resilience; * Asserting the EU’s strategic interests, upholding a rules-based international trading order and addressing unfair practices. The new strategy will strengthen the capacity of trade to support the digital and climate transitions: - First, by contributing to achieve the European Green Deal objectives. - Second, by removing unjustified trade barriers in the digital economy to reap the benefits of digital technologies in trade. **The key objectives of the TPR are: ** * Anchoring the EU’s global regulatory role; * “Greening” EU trade policy to be more sustainable; * More robustly enforcing trade agreement provisions, and; * Better coordinating EU internal and external policies to support its trade policy. Responding to current challenges, the strategy p**rioritises a major reform of the World Trade Organizatio**n, including global commitments on trade and climate, new rules for digital trade, reinforced rules to tackle competitive distortions, and restoring its system for binding dispute settlement. **announced new instruments** * anti-coercion instrument * FDI screening * export control regulation * CBAM

Answer 5

* The TTC serves as a forum for the EU and the US to coordinate approaches to key global trade, economic and technology issues, and to deepen transatlantic trade and economic relations based on shared democratic values. * D**evelop a closer transatlantic partnership on the green and digital transformation of our economies ** * In parallel, the EU and the US have set up a Joint Technology Competition Policy Dialogue that will focus on developing common approaches and strengthening the cooperation on competition policy and enforcement in the tech sectors. * For the EU to enhance its influence in this area, it needs to develop a more strategic approach to international regulatory cooperation, in particular in relation to the green and digital transitions.

Answer 6

Chief Negotiator: Michel Barnier (FR) Legal Basis: Article 50, TFEU The United Kingdom left the European Union on 31 January 2020.

Answer 7

* - The Withdrawal Agreement concluded between the European Union and the United Kingdom establishes the terms of the United Kingdom's orderly withdrawal from the EU, in accordance with Article 50 of the Treaty of the European Union. * -The Withdrawal Agreement entered into force on 1 February 2020, after having been agreed on 17 October 2019. It consists amongst others of a Protocol on Ireland and Northern Ireland. **Contents** * * Citizens' rights: protecting the life choices of more than 5 million EU citizens in the United Kingdom, and over 1 million United Kingdom nationals in EU countries, and protecting their right to stay * * Separation issues: ensured a smooth winding-down and enabled an orderly withdrawal of the United Kingdom, including, amongst others: protects existing intellectual property rights including geographical indications; * addressed the use and protection of data * * A transition period (1 February – 31 December 2020) during which the EU treated the United Kingdom as if it were a Member State, with the exception of participation in the EU institutions and governance structures * The EU and the United Kingdom used these months to negotiate the EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement. * * The financial settlement: ensuring that the United Kingdom and the EU honour all financial obligations undertaken while the United Kingdom was a member of the EU. * * Ireland: a legally-operative solution that avoids a hard border on the island of Ireland, protects the all-island economy and the Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement in all its dimensions, and safeguards the integrity of the EU Single Market.

Answer 8

* The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (entered into forec on 1 May 2021) concluded between the EU and the UK sets out preferential arrangements in areas such as trade in goods and in services, digital trade, intellectual property, public procurement, aviation and road transport, energy, fisheries, social security coordination, law enforcement and judicial cooperation in criminal matters, thematic cooperation and participation in Union programmes * It is underpinned by provisions ensuring a level playing field and respect for fundamental rights. * While it will by no means match the level of economic integration that existed while the UK was an EU Member State, the Trade and Cooperation Agreement goes beyond traditional free trade agreements and provides a solid basis for preserving our longstanding friendship and cooperation. **The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement consists of** * a Free Trade Agreement, with ambitious cooperation on economic, social, environmental and fisheries issues, * a close partnership on citizens’ security, * an overarching governance framework.

Answer 9

* Since very early on in the Withdrawal Agreement negotiations, both the United Kingdom and the EU acknowledged the unique circumstances on the island of Ireland. They recognised the necessity of safeguarding the 1998 Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement, avoiding a hard border on the island of Ireland and protecting North-South cooperation. This solution was found in the form of the Protocol on Ireland and Northern Ireland, which: * Avoids a hard border between Ireland and Northern Ireland, thereby enabling the smooth functioning of the all-island economy and safeguarding the Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement in all its dimensions; * ensures the integrity of the EU’s Single Market for goods, along with all the guarantees it offers in terms of consumer protection, public and animal health protection, and combatting fraud and trafficking, **renegotiation** * The main point of contention for the UK is the European Court of Justice's (ECJ) responsibility to adjudicate on disputes that arise from interpretation of EU law (where the protocol applies them to Northern Ireland). * Until resignation of Frost, UK continued to defer because of this issue * Solution was only foudn through Windsor agreement from 2023

Answer 10

* he Windsor Framework is a post-Brexit legal agreement between the European Union and the United Kingdom which was announced on 27 February 2023 and formally adopted by both parties on 24 March 2023. * It is designed to address the problem of the movement of goods between the European Single Market and the United Kingdom in the current Northern Ireland Protocol. **Content** * The proposed agreement relates to goods crossing the Irish Sea from Great Britain to Northern Ireland.[11] * It would introduce green and red lanes to reduce checks and paperwork on goods that are destined for Northern Ireland, and separate them from goods at risk of moving into the EU Common Market. It also includes a number of agreements on medicine control, VAT and alcohol duty. * The framework introduces a mechanism called the **"Stormont brake"**, which would allow the Northern Ireland Assembly to temporarily stop any changes to EU goods regulations from applying in Northern Ireland if the Assembly feared that the changes would have "significant and lasting effects on everyday lives"

Answer 11

* The withdrawal of a Member State from the EU is an unprecedented situation both for the EU as a whole and for its Member States. BREXIT will affect all Member States but in different ways. * This is why the proposal is designed to support all Member States while ensuring a strong concentration on those most affected. * This is why the proposal is designed to support all Member States while ensuring a strong concentration on those most affected.

Answer 12

EU international agreements are legally binding agreements between the European Union and one or more non-EU countries or international organisations. International agreements are the main form of external lawmaking by the European Union (EU). They may be concluded when the Treaties so provide or when the conclusion of an agreement: (Art 216 TFEU) * (i) is necessary to achieve, within the framework of the EU’s policies, one of the objectives referred to in the Treaties; * (ii) is provided for in a legally binding EU act; or * (iii) is likely to affect common rules or alter their scope. When negotiating and signing an international agreement, the EU must respect the limits of its competences and the general principles on the EU’s external action, as set out in Article 21 of the Treaty on European Union. Legal basis: The procedure for negotiating and adopting international agreements is set out in Articles 207 and 218 of the TFEU for the common commercial policy and for the other external action areas, respectively.

Answer 13

The Cotonou Agreement is the backbone of the partnership between the European Union (EU), EU Member States and 79 African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) countries. The agreement was signed in 2000, entered into force 2003. It succeeded the 1975 Lomé Convention. Three pillars: * development cooperation * economic and trade dimension * political dimension The Cotonou Agreement is a close partnership based on a series of principles: * the partners to the agreement are equal; * the ACP countries determine their own development policies; * cooperation is not only among governments – parliaments, local authorities, civil society, the private sector and economic and social partners play a role as well; * Cooperation arrangements and priorities vary according to aspects such as countries’ levels of development. Joint institutions are in place to support the implementation of the Cotonou Agreement. * The ACP–EU Council of Ministers, assisted by the Committee of Ambassadors * The council presents an annual progress report to the ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly * Two committees:t he Joint ACP–EU Ministerial Trade Committee, and the The ACP–EU Development Finance Cooperation Committe

Answer 14

On 15 November2023, after signature the Post-Cotonou agreement became the Samoa Agreement. The new partnership agreement will serve as the new legal framework for EU relations with 79 countries. This includes 47 African, 16 Caribbean and 15 Pacific countries, and the Republic of Maldives. The agreement aims to strengthen the capacity of the EU and the ACP countries to address global challenges together. It lays down common principles and covers the following six priority areas: * democracy and human rights * sustainable economic growth and development * climate change * human and social development * peace and security * migration and mobility The agreement will include a common foundation at ACP level combined with three regional protocols for Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific with a focus on the regions’ specific needs.

Answer 15

In negotiating and concluding international agreements, the EU, which has legal personality, either has: * exclusive competence for negotiating and concluding the agreements alone – in which case Article 3 of the TFEU specifies the areas in which the EU has exclusive competence (they include trade agreements); or * shared competence to do so with its Member States, if they are also involved in concluding the agreements – in which case the areas of shared competence are listed in Article 4 of the TFEU (they include fields such as consumer protection or environment); agreements relating to such fields are known as mixed agreements. Effect and legal order * International agreements concluded by the EU are binding on its institutions and Member States, and the latter are thus obligated to adhere to their provisions. * They are an integral part of EU law and fall into a category of their own, being separate from primary and secondary legislation. * They can have direct effect and their legal force is superior to that of secondary legislation, which must therefore comply with them. Exclusive copmetency procedure * Where the EU has exclusive competence, the Council of the European Union draws up a mandate for the European Commission, which then negotiates the agreement, except in the field of foreign and security policy, where the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy represents the EU. * Once the negotiations have been completed and, depending on the kind of the agreement, the European Parliament has given its consent or was consulted, the Council signs and concludes agreements on the EU’s behalf. Shared competency procedure * In the case of an agreement in a field in which the EU shares competence with its Member States, representatives from Member States also have to give their mandates for negotiations to begin. **Types**: The most common types of international agreement include association agreements, free trade agreements, economic partnership agreements and partnership and cooperation agreements.

Answer 16

The Nagoya Protocol is a protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), first signed by world leaders in 2010. The EU is a party to the CBD, together with 193 countries. The protocol aims to share out the benefits of using genetic resources in a fair and equitable way. EU adopted in 2014

Answer 17

is a forum of thirteen states, in the European Union, running along a north–south axis from the Baltic Sea to the Adriatic and Black Seas in Central and Eastern Europe. The Initiative aims to create a regional dialogue on questions affecting the member states, o accelerate the development of cross-border energy, transport, and digital networks. Members: Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia, Greece. Partner-participant status of Ukraine and Moldova.

Answer 18

The Visegrád Group (also known as the Visegrád Four or the V4) is a cultural and political alliance of four Central European countries: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia. Estbalished in 1991, primary goal was to become members of the European Union. Since joining NATO and the EU, which was achieved by 2004, the aim of the V4 [see Figure 3] has been to continue fostering closer interrelationships and deepen multi-sectoral cooperation between the member countries across political, cultural, military, economic and energy spheres, amongst other areas of joint action.

Answer 19

is an organization founded on 4 November 2015 in Bucharest, Romania, at the initiative of the President of Romania Klaus Iohannis and the President of Poland Andrzej Duda during a bilateral meeting between them. Its appearance was mainly a result of a perceived aggressive attitude from Russia following the annexation of Crimea from Ukraine and its posterior intervention in eastern Ukraine both in 2014. Members: Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovakia. It brings together nine Central and Eastern European countries aiming to bolster their defense capabilities and to enhance collaboration with other NATO members.

Answer 20

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a collection of 17 global objectives established by the United Nations in 2015 as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Legal status: The SDGs are, in essence, universal, time-bound, and legally non-binding policy objectives agreed upon by governments. These goals aim to address a broad range of interconnected global challenges, including poverty eradication, environmental sustainability, social equity, and economic growth, under the guiding principle of "leaving no one behind." Goal was to replace the millenium development goals. EU role: The first-ever EU Voluntary Review on the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda (EUVR) shows how the Commission’s priorities, such as the European Green Deal, help drive at home and globally the transformations necessary to deliver on the SDGs, while leaving no one behind. These priorities are interconnected with the five Ps – People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace, Partnership - of the preamble of the 2030 Agenda. Stats: 17 goals, 169 targets, 7909 actions

Answer 21

1. No poverty 2. Zero hunger 3. Good health and well-being 4. Quality Education 5. Gender equality 6. Clean water and sanitation 7. Affordable and clean energy 8. Decent work and economic growth 9. Industry, innovation and infrastructure 10. Reduced inequalities 11. Sustainable cities and economies 12. Responsible consumption and production 13. Climate action 14. Life below water 15. Life on land 16. Peace, justice and strong institutions 17. Partnership for the goals

Answer 22

EU-NATO connections: 23 EU Member States also NATO Allies. Relations between the EU and NATO were institutionalised in the early 2000s. Series of joint declarations, Third EU-NATO joint declaration in 2023. Main principles are information sharing, coordinated planning, concrete cooperation in the areas of: * hybrid threats, * operational cooperations * cycbesecurity * capacity-building * defence capabilities * industry and research * coordinatd exercises

Answer 23

* NATO was created by 12 countries from Europe and North America on 4 April 1949. * Since then, 20 more countries have joined NATO through 10 rounds of enlargement (in 1952, 1955, 1982, 1999, 2004, 2009, 2017, 2020, 2023 and 2024). * Article 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty sets out how countries can join the Alliance. It states that membership is open to any "European State in a position to further the principles of this Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlantic area". * 1949 – The 12 founding members * 1952 – The accession of Greece and Türkiye * 1955 – The accession of Germany * 1982 – The accession of Spain * 1999 – The first wave of post-Cold War enlargement * 2004 – The second wave of post-Cold War enlargement * 2009 – The accession of Albania and Croatia * 2017 – The accession of Montenegro * 2020 – The accession of North Macedonia * 2023 – The accession of Finland * 2024 – The accession of Sweden Currently, three partner countries have declared their aspirations to NATO membership: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia and Ukraine.

Answer 24

NATO's founding member countries were: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States.

Answer 25

Article 1: Members agree to the use of peaceful means to settle disputes. Article 2: Members will strengthen their free instituions, and promote stability and well-being. Article 3: Members will maintain their individual capacity to resist armed attack. Article 4: Members will consult each other when the territorial integrity, independence, or security of any member is threatened. Article 5: Members agree that an armed attack on any party is an attack on them all, with each member taking action it deems necessary, including the use of armed force. Article 6: An armed attack on any member is defined as an attack on the territory, forces, vessels, or aircraft of any member. Article 7: This treaty does not alter any obligation of members of the United Nations (U.N.). Article 8: This treaty does not conflict with agreements currently in force between members or a third state. Article 9: Members will establish a council whereby they can discuss matters concerning the treaty. Article 10: With unanimous agreement, members may invite any other European state to join the treaty. Article 11: Ratification of the treaty will follow each party’s respective constitutional process. Article 12: After 10 years, members may convene to review the treaty, if any of them so requests. Article 13: After 20 years, any member may cease to be a member one year after giving notice. Article 14: The English and French versions of the treaty are equally authentic and shall be deposited in the archives of the government of the United States.

Answer 26

* Comission represents EU at WTO (exclusive competency). The Commission negotiates trade agreements and defends the EU’s interests before the WTO Dispute Settlement Body on behalf of all 27 Member States. * The Commission regularly consults and reports to the Council and Parliament on the content and strategy for the multilateral discussions. Under the Lisbon Treaty, the Council and Parliament are co-legislators with an equal say on international trade matters. Representaiton and coordination: * The WTO's highest decision-making body is the Ministerial Conference. The EU Trade Commissioner represents the EU in this forum. * The European Commission also represents the EU in the General Council of the WTO, which acts on behalf of the Ministerial Conference and meets regularly, and in subsidiary WTO bodies, which set up rules for specific areas of world trade, e.g. respecting the environment and monitor how they’re applied * The Commission coordinates the EU negotiating position with the EU Member States by consulting with the Council's trade policy committee. * The Commission regularly informs the European Parliament's International Trade Committee (INTA) of WTO issues. * The Commission initiates and handles WTO complaints with the Council support and may propose retaliatory measures to the Council. EU position on WTO reform: * updating the rule book on international trade to capture today's global economy * strengthening the monitoring role of the WTO * overcoming deadlock on the WTO dispute settlement system

Answer 27

The WTO's main activities are: * Being a forum for international trade negotiations (e.g. the Doha Development Round) * Resolving trade disputes (Dispute Settlement) * Setting legal rules for trade in the form of trade agreements * Monitoring members' trade policy through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism Main Treaties: * General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) * General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) * Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Since 2001, the WTO’s members have been engaged in a broad round of multilateral trade negotiations known as the Doha Round, or Doha Development Agenda (DDA), the main goal of which is to place development at the heart of the world trade system. In February 2017, the Trade Facilitation Agreement – the first multilateral agreement completed since the WTO was created – entered into force.

Answer 28

* The Ministerial Conference is the highest decision-making body of the WTO. It is composed of representatives of all the member countries and meets at least once every 2 years. * Between these meetings, the General Council, also made up of representatives of all the members, takes decisions relating to the functioning of the WTO and supervises the agreements and ministerial decisions. The General Council also meets to discharge the responsibilities of the DSB and the Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB) provided for in the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM, see below). * he General Council has three subsidiary bodies: the Council for Trade in Goods, the Council for Trade in Services and the Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. * The General Council appoints a director-general who is responsible for heading the Secretariat of the WTO. * In principle, the WTO takes its decisions by consensus. When a decision cannot be reached, decisions are determined by a majority of votes, with each WTO member having one vote. The EU, which is a full member of the WTO, has a number of votes equal to the number of EU Member States that are members of the WTO. The Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) * The Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) is a peer review mechanism, with its mandate set out Annex 3 to the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (WTO Agreement). It enables regular analysis of the trade policies of all WTO members. * Within the framework of the TPRM, all WTO members are subject to review. This review is held every 2 years for the members with the largest share of world trade (currently China, the EU, Japan and the United States), every 4 years for the next 16 members and every 6 years for the other members. * The review is carried out by the TPRB based on a general policy declaration submitted by the member concerned and on a report drawn up by the WTO Secretari * In drawing up its report, the Secretariat seeks the support of the member concerned but retains full responsibility for the facts presented and views expressed. The Secretariat’s report and the member’s declaration are published following the review meeting, together with the minutes of the meeting and the text of the final comments made by the chairman of the TPRB at the end o Disbute Setttlement System * The dispute settlement process is launched when one member submits to another a request for consultations on a specific issue. These consultations must begin within 30 days of the request. If the consultations fail to settle a dispute, a member may call on the DSB to set up a panel, usually consisting of three independent experts, in order to deal with the issue. * In addition, the parties may voluntarily agree to make use of other dispute settlement methods, including good offices, conciliation and mediation. * After listening to the parties, the panel submits a report to the DSB. The panel must complete its work within 6 months or, in cases of urgency, within 3 months. The panel report is considered for adoption by the DSB 20 days after it has been circulated to members * The WTO’s dispute settlement procedure enables all parties to appeal a panel report. The appeal is, however, limited to issues of law covered in the panel report and legal interpretations developed by the panel. The appeal is examined by a standing Appellate Body composed of seven members appointed by the DSB for a 4-year term. Three of the members serve on any one case

Answer 29

The Lisbon Treaty introduced the possibility for certain EU countries to strengthen their cooperation in military matters by creating permanent structured cooperation (Articles 42(6) and 46 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU)). In order to do this, interested countries must fulfil two main conditions provided in Protocol No 10 annexed to the treaty: * They must intensively develop defence capacities through the development of national contributions and their participation in multinational forces, in the main European equipment programmes and in the activities of the European Defence Agency in the field of defence capabilities development, research, acquisition and armaments; * They must have the capacity by 2010 to supply combat units and support logistics for the tasks referred to in Article 43 TEU within a period of 5 to 30 days and, depending on needs, for a period of 30 to 120 days. The European Defence Agency regularly assesses the contributions of participating countries. Procedure for joining: * EU countries wishing to constitute permanent structured cooperation must notify their intention to the Council and to the EU’s High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. * . Following this notification, the Council must adopt a decision by qualified majority establishing permanent structured cooperation and the list of participating countries. * The membership of new countries or the suspension of some of them is decided by the Council by a qualified majority of the members participating in the permanent structured cooperation. * The decisions and recommendations taken within the framework of such permanent structured cooperation are adopted by unanimity of the participating Council members only.

Answer 30

Decisions relating to the CSDP are taken by the Council of the European Union by unanimity. However, there are some exceptions like for instance when the Council adopts some decisions implementing an EU decision or for some decisions relating to the European Defence Agency (EDA) and permanent structured cooperation (PESCO), where decisions are taken by qualified majority voting.

Answer 31

* These tasks were set out in the Petersberg Declaration adopted at the Ministerial Council of the Western European Union (WEU) in June 1992. * On that occasion, the WEU member countries declared their readiness to make available to the WEU, but also to NATO and the EU, military units from the whole spectrum of their conventional armed forces From then on, they have covered: * humanitarian and rescue tasks; * conflict prevention and peace-keeping tasks; * tasks of combat forces in crisis management, including peacemaking; * joint disarmament operations * military advice and assistance tasks; * post-conflict stabilisation tasks.

Answer 32

The Lisbon Treaty includes a collective defence clause (Article 42(7) of the Treaty on European Union TEU) within the European Union’s common security and defence policy (CSDP) rules. When an EU Member State is the target of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States must assist it by all the means in their power. Such commitments are to be consistent with the commitments made by Member States as members of NATO. Article 42(7) TEU takes its inspiration from the Brussels Treaty (as modified in 1954), which set up the Western European Union (WEU), a defence alliance of 10 Western European countries, which alongside the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, was the main guarantor of European security after the Second World War. In 2000, the WEU agreed to gradually transfer its capabilities and tasks to the EU’s common security and defence policy. The WEU finally ceased to exist in June 2011.

Answer 33

The Solidarity clause, introduced by Article 222 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), provides the option for the EU and EU countries: * to act jointly; * to prevent the terrorist threat in the territory of an EU country ; * to provide assistance to another EU country which is the victim of a natural or man-made disaster. The clause applies: * to disasters and terrorist attacks within the EU territory, whether on land, sea or in the air; * to the protection of infrastructure (such as offshore gas and oil rigs) in EU countries' territorial waters; * irrespective of whether the crisis originates inside or outside the EU. The clause was implemented as anticipated following the terrorist attacks in Madrid in March 2004. The European Union Solidarity Fund is an instrument financing operations in the field of civil protection first created in 2002. Under revised rules adopted in 2014, working procedures have been simplified and eligibility criteria clarified and extended to cover drought.

Answer 34

Solidarity Fund: * Legal basis: Article 175 TFEU * The European Union Solidarity Fund enables the EU to provide effective support to a Member State, or to a country involved in accession negotiations, in its efforts to deal with the effects of a major natural disaster or a major public health emergency. * The Solidarity Fund is not a tool for providing rapid responses to specific emergencies or natural disasters. This is the role of the Emergency Aid Reserve. * Since 2020, the Solidarity Fund has also covered major public health emergencies, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. * Budget: The Solidarity Fund was set up in 2002 in response to the disastrous flooding that affected central Europe in the summer of that year. * Since 2021, the Solidarity Fund and the Emergency Aid Reserve have been financed as one instrument, called the Solidarity and Emergency Aid Reserve (SEAR). The maximum annual budget for the SEAR is EUR 1.2 billion (in 2018 prices). Since mid-term MFF revision, it increased to EUR 1.5 billion Emergency Aid Reserve.

Answer 35

The Political and Security Committee is a Committee of the Council of the European Union dealing with the common foreign and security policy (CFSP) mentioned in Article 38 of the Treaty on European Union. Its remit is: * to monitor the international situation in the areas covered by the CFSP; * to contribute to the definition of policies; * to monitor implementation of policies without prejudice to the powers of the EU’s High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. It is assisted by a Politico-Military Group, a Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management, and the Military Committee and Military Staff.

Answer 36

* Under the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), the EU takes a leading role in peacekeeping operations, conflict prevention and the strengthening of international security * Currently, some 3,500 military personnel and 1,300 civilian personnel are deployed around the world. * As of today, there are 24 ongoing EU CSDP missions and operations, including 13 civilian, 10 military and 1 civilian and military initiative * Since 2003 * The Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) is the permanent headquarters for the planning and operational conduct of all civilian Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) missions.Is directorate of EEAS * Managing Director Stefano Tomat serves as the Civilian Operations Commander for all CSDP missions.

Answer 37

Legal basis: Art 21.4 Goals: * safeguarding its values, fundamental interests, security, independence and integrity; * consolidating and supporting democracy, the rule of law, human rights and the principles of international law; * preserving peace, prevent conflicts and strengthening international security. Article 21 also requires the EU to ensure consistency between EU external action and other policy areas.The EU’s external action covers 6 domains: 1. Common foreign and security policy 2. Development cooperation 3. Humanitarian Aid 3. Assistance 4. Trade 5. Solidarity clause

Answer 38

Mandate: * The EUSR’s role is to promote the EU’s human rights policy objectives as set out in the EU treaties, the Charter of Fundamental Rights and the EU strategic framework on human rights and democracy. Governane: * The EUSR is responsible for implementing these policy objectives and acts under the authority of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. * The Council of the European Union’s Political and Security Committee provides the EUSR with strategic guidance and political direction, and is their primary point of contact with the Council * The EUSR reports regularly to: the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy;the Political and Security Committee; the Council’s Working Party on Human Rights.

Answer 39

COREU is a communication network between the 27 EU Member States, the Council, the European External Action Service (EEAS) and the European Commission. By providing a regular flow of information, it facilitates cooperation on foreign and security policy matters, and their implementation. COREU allows the EU to react swiftly in emergencies, for example by approving an EU position in Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) matters through a silence procedure at very short notice, as defined in Article 12 of the Council's Rules of Procedure.

Answer 40

Legal basis: Art 33 TEU. It provides the legal basis for the Council, on a proposal from the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (HR), to appoint a special representative with a specific policy mandate. Mandate: * EU Special Representatives (EUSRs) promote the EU’s policies and interests in specific regions and countries. In supporting the work of the HR, they play an active role in EU efforts to consolidate peace, stability and the rule of law in non-EU countries. * The EUSRs support the work of the EU High Representative/Vice President (HR/VP) in the regions concerned List of EUSRs (10 currently) * EUSR in Bosnia and Herzegowina * EUSR for human rigts * EUSR for Sahel * EUSR for Gulf Region * EUSR for Central Asia * EUSR for Kosovo * EUSRU for South Caucasus and crisis in Georgia * EUSR for Horn of Africa * EUSR for Midle East Peace Process * EUSR for Belgrade-Pristina Dialogue an dother Western Balkan regional issues

Answer 41

The roles of the European Council and Council within the CFSP are defined by Article 26 TEU: * the European Council sets the overall political direction and establishes priorities; * the Council defines and implements those priorities. Article 26 requires the European Council to * identify the EU’s strategic interests; * set out the objectives of and general guidelines for CFSP, including for defence matters; * adopt the necessary relevant decisions. * The EU’s core interests and principles are currently set out in the EU’s Global Strategy for foreign and security policy. * The President of the European Council represents the EU internationally in matters concerning CFSP at the level of Heads of State and/or Government, without any effect on the powers of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. * The High Representative takes part in the work of the European Council. Council: * The EU Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) is chaired by the High Representative. * A number of committees and preparatory bodies support the work of the FAC, including: the Political and Security Committee; the Military Committee;the Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management (known as CivCom); * CFSP working parties. * The European External Action Service, created under Council Decision 2010/427/EU following the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty (see summary), assists the Council in implementing the CFSP.

Answer 42

Defintion: The global strategy sets out the EU’s core interests and principles for engaging with the rest of the world and aims to give the EU a shared vision and collective sense of direction. Scope: The global strategy aims to make the EU more effective in confronting various challenges, including: * energy security * migration * climate change * violent extremism and * hybrid threats*. Five priorities: 1. The security and defence priority aims to improve the protection of the EU and of its citizens, help governments jointly build military capacity, and develop a better response to crises. 2. Building state and societal resilience by supporting good governance and accountable institutions and by working closely with civil society. Support will focus on the EU’s surrounding regions to the south and to the east. 3. An integrated approach to conflicts and crises through being fully engaged in all stages of conflict and through a coherent use of all policies at the EU’s disposal at different levels of governance. 4. Cooperative regional orders will support voluntary forms of regional governance worldwide, 5. Rules-based global governance: honouring its commitment to a rules-based multilateral international order, the EU aims to reform, transform and expand this system.

Answer 43

wide range of methods or activities used by hostile state or non-state actors in a coordinated manner in order to target the vulnerabilities of democratic states and institutions while remaining below the threshold of formally declared warfare.

Answer 44

Goal: lows European Union (EU) Member States to finance EU measures supporting non-EU partner countries to preserve peace, prevent conflicts and strengthen international security under the common foreign and security policy (CFSP) and in accordance with point (c) of Article 21(2) of the Treaty on European Union. * The EPF finances the cost of EU initiatives with military or defence implications that cannot be financed by the EU budget. * The EPF can finance: common security and defence policy missions and operations with military or defence implications; assistance measures. Governance: * The EPF is managed by the Facility Committee, with representatives from every Member State, backed up by administrative and accounting staff. * The Council takes political decisions, such as where assistance should be allocated, based on proposals from the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. Budget; * The EPF has a financial ceiling of €17 billion for the 2021–2027 multiannual financial framework period. * The EPF is financed outside of the EU general budget * From 18 March 2024, an amount of €5 billion in current prices is to be dedicated to providing additional support to Ukraine.

Answer 45

* The EU naval force Atalanta (now Eunavfor Atalanta) was launched in late 2008 in response to rising levels of piracy in the western Indian Ocean as part of the EU’s integrated approach to Somalia. * It was set up under the European common security and defence policy (CSDP) and in accordance with relevant United Nations Security Council resolutions (UNSCR) and international law. Mission: Eunavfor Atalanta helps: * to protect vessels of the World Food Programme delivering food aid to displaced persons in Somalia; * to protect vulnerable vessels cruising off the Somali coast, and to deter, prevent and repress acts of piracy and armed robbery off the Somali coast; * to implement the UN arms embargo on Somalia and counter narcotic drugs trafficking, arms trafficking, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and illicit trade in charcoal off the coast of Somalia.

Answer 46

The European Union Military Committee (EUMC) is the highest military body set up within the Council (COUNCIL DECISION of 22 January 2001) setting up the Military Committee of the European Union. * is composed of the Chiefs of Defence (CHODs) of the member states, who are regularly represented by their permanent military representatives. * It is the forum for military consultation and cooperation between the EU Member States in the field of conflict prevention and crisis management. * It directs all military activities within the EU framework, in particular the planning and execution of military missions and operations under the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) and the development of military capabilities.

Answer 47

Legal basis: Art 29 TEU, Art 215 TFEU Overview: * Article 29 TEU allows the Council of the European Union to adopt restrictive measures (sanctions) against governments of countries that are not part of the European Union (EU), non-state entities (for example, companies) * Under Article 215 TFEU, the Council may adopt the necessary measures to implement decisions adopted under Article 29 TEU to ensure they are applied uniformly in all EU Member States. When sanction are allowed * The EU adopts sanctions, either as its own measures (i.e. autonomous sanctions) and/or as a way to implement United Nations Security Council resolutions, in cases where non-EU countries, natural or legal persons, groups or non-state entities: * do not respect international law or human rights; * pursue policies or actions that do not abide by the rule of law or democratic principles. Gradual sanction: A range of gradual sanctions may be imposed by the EU against non-EU countries, including the following. * Diplomatic sanctions: * Economic and financial sanctions:arms embargoes on military goods included in the EU’s common military list; restrictions on importing and exporting goods with both civilian and military uses (dual use goods). Restrictive measures can include: * freezing funds and economic resources * a visa or travel ban * sectoral measure prohibitions, for example on importing or exporting certain goods or technologies. Introduction of regimes of restrictive measures * addressing the use and proliferation of chemical weapons * targeting those responsible for cyberattacks, with the adoption of Decision * targeting those responsible for unauthorised drilling activities in the eastern Mediterranean, with the adoption of Decision (CFSP) 2019/1894 and Regulation (EU) 2019/1890.

Answer 48

Overview: In the context of the ongoing Russian war of aggression against Ukraine, Directive (EU) 2024/1226 aims to make it easier to investigate and prosecute violations of European Union (EU) sanctions (restrictive measures). * The directive sets minimum EU-wide rules for defining criminal offences and penalties for the violation and circumvention of EU restrictive measures. * It includes a comprehensive list of criminal offences relating to the violation and circumvention of EU restrictive measures, such as: failing to freeze assets, breaching bans, et.c * Companies or other legal bodies can be held criminally or non-criminally liable, with maximum fines of at least 5% of the worldwide turnover or €40 million. * The directive has to be transposed into national law by 20 May 2025. These rules should apply from the same date..

Answer 49

Overview: They introduce a framework which allows the EU to impose sanctions to deter and respond to cyber-attacks constituting an external threat to the EU or to EU countries. These cyber-attacks include those against non-EU countries or international organisations where action is considered necessary to achieve the EU’s common foreign and security policy objectives. Key points: * This framework allows the EU to impose sanctions on persons or entities responsible for cyber-attacks or attempted cyber-attacks * The cyber-attacks falling within the scope of this new sanctions regime are those which have significant impact and which: all take place outside EU * SCope: essentially, all critial infrastructure, services, government, classified info

Answer 50

Timeline: 15th rounds of sanctions, last one in Dec 2024 Individual sanctions: 2,400 people, including Putin Economic sanctions: * €24.9 billionof private assets frozen in the EU * €210 billionof assets from the Central Bank of Russia blocked in the EU * The windfall net profits generated by immobilised Russian assets are being used to support Ukraine's armed forces, defence industry and reconstruction. The funds are being channelled through the European Peace Facility and other EU programmes. * Several sectors banned, including 90%of EU oil imports from Russia are covered by the ban * Price-cap on oil and petroleum products: imporst exempted when such goods are purchased at or below the price cap. * Bans on road transport, aviation, maritime (all vessels besides ones carrying essential goods) * SWIFT ban for Russian and Belarusian banks * Visa ban, etc.

Answer 51

* UN Security Council Resolution 1540 (2004): first international instrument dealing comprehensively with WMD. It sets out binding obligations on countries to stop WMD proliferation * On 30 November 2022, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 2663 extending the mandate of the Committee set up in accordance with resolution 1540 (the 1540 Committee) for a period of 10 years until 30 November 2032. The committee engages actively with countries and relevant international, regional and sub-regional organisations on ways to implement Resolution 1540. * EU role: * Has a 2003 strategy designed to prevent, deter, halt and, where possible, eliminate WMD programmes worldwide. * Based on multilateralism, international cooperation, and prevention * UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) links the EU project to the 1540 Committee and liaises and coordinates with other relevant EU programmes and projects under the following Council decisions: * EUR 2 billion allocated to this

Answer 52

Overview: The aim of the Arms Trade Treaty, which was adopted in 2013, is to contribute to international and regional peace, security and stability by regulating the international trade in conventional arms and eradicating the illicit arms trade. The treaty applies to all conventional arms. Because certain aspects that it covers fall within EU competence, EU countries required the Council’s authorisation to sign and ratify it The EU has adopted an implementation support programme. This provides funding to support countries’ efforts to implement the treaty by strengthening their arms transfer control systems.

Answer 53

Overview: * is an international organization based in Vienna, Austria, that is tasked with building up the verification regime of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO). * The organization was established by the States Signatories to the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) in 1996. * The CTBT's verification regime is designed to detect any nuclear explosion on Earth. It uses an International Monitoring System (IMS) and 4 verification technologies to monitor countries’ compliance with the CTBT, which bans all nuclear explosions on the planet. * EU has a decision and Allocated EUR 5 billion for it

Answer 54

Legal basis: Article 37 of the Treaty on European Union and Article 218 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union provide the necessary legal background conferring authority for the EU to conclude agreements with non-EU countries concerning their participation in EU crisis management operations. Actors: * The European External Action Service Crisis Response and Operational Coordination Department is responsible for activating the service’s Crisis Response System (CRS) * The CRS covers crises which may affect EU security and interests occurring outside the EU, including those affecting the EU delegations or any other EU asset or person in non-EU countries. * It also covers crises occurring inside the EU that have an external dimension. Third country participation: * Each non-EU country covered by the agreements decides to accept the invitation to participate in EU-led operations on a case-by-case basis. * . If it accepts, the country also undertakes to abide by the terms of the Council of the European Union decision through which the EU has decided to conduct the operation concerned.

Answer 55

The export controls take into account the EU and its Member States' international obligations, including: * UN Security Council Resolution 1540; * the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty; * the Chemical Weapons Convention, and; * the Biological Weapons Convention. Includes IOs multilateral export control regimes that are active in the spac: * Australia Grozp: Chemical and biological weapons * missile technlogy control regime * Nuclear Suppliers Group: group of nuclear supplier countries that seeks to contribute to the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons * Chemical Weapons Convention. Done by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons * Wassenaar Arrangement on export controls for conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies, There are four types of export authorisations, as indicated below. * EU general export authorisations allow the export of certain dual-use items to certain countries and under certain conditions * National general export authorisations may be issued by Member States if they are consistent with existing EU general export authorisation * Global licences are issued by national authorities to one exporter and may cover multiple items to multiple countries or end users. * Individual licenses are issued by national authorities to one exporter and cover exports of one or more dual-use items to one end user or consignee in a non-EU country.

Answer 56

Legal basis: Art 21 TEU EU - Un relations: * The EU has the status of enhanced observer at the UN: he EU has the right to speak among representatives of major groups and to present proposals and amendments orally (a possibility that no other observer has at its disposal), and the right of reply once to an intervention regarding an EU position. * The partnership between the EU and the UN is based on political and operational cooperation for the completion of joint programmes and projects. * the EU presents its priorities for the UN General Assembly annually. These guide the EU delegation’s work.. * The EU and the EU countries combined are the single largest contributor to the UN system.

Answer 57

* Created when the Treaty of Lisbon was signed in 2009, the CSDP replaces and enlarges the former European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) * The aim of the policy is the establishment of a common European defence capability. Key points: * EU countries must make civilian and military capabilities available to the EU to implement the CSDP. * The CSDP includes the progressive framing of a common EU defence policy; this will lead to a common defence when the European Council, acting unanimously, so decides * EU countries will take measures to improve their military capacities. The European Defence Agency (EDA) is the body that aims to help facilitate those measures. It reports to the Council of the EU on its work * The permanent structured cooperation in defence (PSCD) (also added in the Lisbon Treaty - Articles 42 and 46 of the Treaty on European Union) refers to a deeper form of cooperation between EU countries * The EU may use civilian and military assets outside the EU for peace-keeping, conflict prevention and strengthening international security * The Council of the EU defines the objectives of the tasks and the conditions for their implementation.

Answer 58

Background: The Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in the area of security and defence policy was established by a Council decision on 11 December 2017, iwth 26 EU MS. Legal bassi Goal: The participating Member States’ aim is to collaboratively develop a coherent full spectrum force package and make the capabilities available to the following Member States for national and multinational (EU CSDP, NATO, UN, etc.) missions and operations The participating Member States work together to develop projects to: * enhance military training and exercises; * strengthen their capabilities, including in cyberspace Members: all EU countries except Malta Complementarity: PESCO complements two other important current initiatives: the European Defence Fund, which will support certain collaborative projects financially, and the Coordinated Annual Review on Defence (CARD) which supports Member States’ efforts to better identify opportunities for new collaborative initiatives.

Answer 59

Scope: It enables the European Commission to adopt safeguard measures to protect European Union (EU) industry from unfair competition caused by a sudden and unforeseen increase in imports. * Unlike anti-dumping and anti-subsidy measures, safeguard measures do not focus on whether trade is ‘fair’ or not, so the conditions for imposing them are more stringent. Criteria: The EU has to show that the increase in imports is: * sharp, * due to unforeseen developments, * causing (or threatening) serious injury to EU industry, and * that safeguards are in the interest of the EU. The Commission may adopt the following safeguard measures: * measures to amend, suspend or repeal existing anti-dumping and/or anti-subsidy measures, * measures to exempt imports in whole or in part from anti-dumping or countervailing duties which would otherwise be payable, * any other special measures such as import or tariff quotas on imports, considered appropriate in the circumstances.

Answer 60

**Anti-dumping measures**: measures, e.g. specific duties, applied to imports into the EU of ‘dumped products’, i.e. products exported to the EU at a lower price than the domestic price, and that cause injury to the EU industry. **Anti-subsidy measures**: measures, e.g. countervailing duties, imposed by the EU on imports that are subsidised and thus injure EU industry producing the like (a similar) product. **Safeguard measures**: measures introduced when the Commission concludes that imports of a certain product have increased to the extent that they cause (or threaten) serious harm to EU producers. They are temporary measures (e.g. import or tariff quotas) applied to imports in order to offer EU producers the time to make any necessary structural adjustments. **Countervailing duties:** duties levied on goods which have received government subsidies in the originating or exporting country, thus enabling the goods to be imported into the EU at prices substantially lower than their normal commercial value.

Answer 61

Overview: The two main sources of EU funding for the African Union are the African Peace Facility (APF) and the Pan-African Programme (PANAF) The legal basis for the APF is in the Cotonou Agreement, and it is funded through the European Development Fund (EDF). Main areas: Peace support, capacity-building, early response. AFP: * The APF was established in 2004 in response to a request by African leaders. * Financed through the European Development Fund, it constitutes the main source of funding to support the African Union's and African Regional Economic Communities' efforts in the area of peace and security with an overall amount of more than EUR 2.7 billion since 2004. PANAF: * The PANAF, established in 2014, provides dedicated support to the Africa-EU Strategic Partnership and is the first ever EU programme for development and cooperation that covers Africa as a whole. The programme is funded under the EU's Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI) with a budget of €845 million for the period 2014-2020.

Answer 62

* The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002. Adopted in 2003 * These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the "CJTF mechanism" (combined joint task force) * Content: Sever * NATO - EU Security Agreement * Availability of NATO assets and capabilities for EU-led CMO

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