EU external action Flashcards
Goals of this priority
- The European Commission champions multilateralism and a rules-based global order through a more active role and stronger voice for the EU in the world.
- A strong, fair and open trade agenda, makes Europe an attractive place for business. This is key to strengthening the EU’s role as a global leader while ensuring the highest standards of climate, environmental and labour protections.
- European leadership also means working closely with neighbouring countries, introducing a comprehensive strategy on Africa and reaffirming the European perspective of the countries of the Western Balkans.
- The Commission seeks a coordinated approach to external action - from development aid to the Common Foreign and Security Policy - that secures a stronger and more united voice for Europe in the world.
- Bolster defence and make steps towards genuine defence union, with integrated and comprehensive approach to EU security
Main initiatives to quote related to this priority:
- Defence: creation of DG DEFIS, European Peace Facility, Strategic Compass, EU strategy for defence and space
- CFSP: economic security policy
- Trade: trade policy review, Anti coercion instrument
- Neighbourhood:
The EU’s external action comprises:
- its commercial (trade) policy — Articles 206 and 207 TFEU;
- development cooperation — Articles 208, 209, 210 and 211 TFEU;
- economic, financial and technical cooperation with non-EU countries — Articles 212 and 213 TFEU;
- humanitarian aid — Article 214 TFEU;
- CFSP and CSDP — (Articles 21-46 TEU);
- the external dimension of other EU internal policies (such as migration, environmental protection, etc.).
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy
Portfolio: High Representative
Legal Basis: Council – Unanimity, Art 21-46 TEU
Actors: EEAS, European Defence Agency, DG DEFIS, EUISS, Council (Foreign Affairs Council, Political And Security Committee, which is ambassadorial-level meeting), european Union Satelite Centre (EUSC, agency that analysis of satellite imagery and collateral data), Foreign Policy Intrument (FPI, responsible for operational implementation of external action and for operationa and financial mamangeemnt of the budgets for the EUÄs CFSP)
Foreign Affairds Council meets 1/month and defines EU foreign policy, meetings are chaired by HR/VP
Common Foreign and Security Policy
- 1954: Western European Union (WEU) includes mutual defence clause, which remained until late 1990s with NATO central actor
- 1993: One of the three pillars in Maastricht, now security tasked to the newly created EU – although in purely intergovernmental second pillar
- 1999 The Amsterdam Treaty implemented the Petersberg tasks (created the office of the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy until 2009 (Lisbon).
- 2007: The Treaty of Lisbon, which entered into force on 1 January 2009, provided the Union with legal personality and an institutional structure for its external service. In addition, it eliminated the pillar structure introduced by the TEU in 1993.
The Treaty created a range of new CFSP actors, including the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who also serves as Vice-President of the Commission (VP/HR), and the new permanent President of the European Council. Moreover, it created the European External Action Service (EEAS, formally launched in 2011) and upgraded the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP), which forms an integral part of the CFSP.
- Common Security and Defence Policy: main recent developments and aim
Legal Basis: Art. 42-46 TEU
Aim: Steps towards a genuine European Defence Union. Integrated and comprehensive approach to our security.
The Commission is developing policies in support of innovation, competitiveness and resilience of the EU defence industry and to build a more open defence equipment market
- the CSDP also entails a mutual defence clause amongst member states as well.
- - 2017: Setting up of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO): PESCO is a Treaty-based framework and process to deepen defence cooperation amongst EU Member States who are capable and willing to do so (integration of armed forces). Members are 26 EU MS, plus also third countries (currently in application phase)
- - 2017: European Defence Fund: The European Defence Fund (EDF) is the European Commission’s initiative to support collaborative defence research and development, and to foster an innovative and competitive defence industrial base. (so far Eur 3 billion disursed + 1.3 billion this year)
- - 2021: European Peace Facility: expands the EU’s ability to provide security for its citizens and its partners. It enables the EU to provide all types of military equipment and security infrastructure to EU partners, in compliance with the highest human rights standards.
- 2022: Strategic Compass for Security and Defence
HR/VP
- The High Representative, in conjunction with the President of the European Council, speaks on behalf of the EU in agreed foreign policy matters and can have the task of articulating ambiguous policy positions created by disagreements among member states.
- heading the European External Action Service (EEAS), chairing the Foreign Affairs Council in its ‘Defence Ministers configuration’ (the EU’s CSDP decision-making body) and directing the European Defence Agency (EDA)
- The VP/HR – currently Josep Borrell – usually issues proposals for decisions on the CSDP to Member States.
- The High Representative serves as the head of the European Defence Agency and exercises the same functions over the Common Security and Defence Policy as the CFSP.
- Strategic Compass
- Seeks to provide an deepened politico-strategic direction for the EU’s security and defence policy by 2030 and set the level of ambition in this area.
- The objective of the Strategic Compass is to make the EU a stronger and more capable security provider
- Reinforced OSA as goal
- The Strategic Compass provides a shared assessment of the strategic environment in which the EU is operating and of the threats and challenges the Union faces
Key targets
* stablish a strong EU Rapid Deployment Capacity of up to 5000 troops
* boost its intelligence analysis capacities
* develop an EU Space Strategy for Security and Defence
* boost defence technological innovation to fill strategic gaps and reduce technological and industrial dependencies
DG DEFIS
Portfolio: Thierry Breton (Industry and Defence), in Commission Working Programme under Europe fit for the Digital Age
- DG DEFIS is responsible for strengthening the competitiveness of the defence industry, including SMEs, and stimulating the defence internal market.
- Established in 2021, leads activities in space (e.g. EU space programme= and defence industry
Economic security strategy
Goal: de-risk trade relations
across 4 areas:
* risks to the resilience of supply chains, including energy security;
* risks to physical and cyber security of critical infrastructure;
* risks related to technology security and technology leakage;
* risks of weaponisation of economic dependencies or economic coercion.
The Strategy also sets out how to mitigate identified risks through a three-pronged approach, namely by:
* promoting the EU’s competitiveness, by strengthening the Single Market
* protecting the EU’s economic security through a range of existing policies and tools,
* partnering with the broadest possible range of partners to strengthen economic security, including through furthering and finalising trade agreements
Actions
* The Strategy proposes a methodology for this risk assessment. It should be carried out by the Commission and Member States in cooperation with the High Representative, where appropriate, and with input from the private sector.
* further support EU technological sovereignty and resilience of EU value chains, including by developing critical technologies through Strategic Technologies for Europe Platform (STEP);
* review the Foreign Direct Investment Screening Regulation.
* fully implement the EU’s export control regulation on dual use items
* examine, together with Member States, what security risks can result from outbound investments and on this basis propose an initiative by the end of the year;
* instruct the EU Single Intelligence Analysis Capacity (SIAC - provides foresight and situational awareness) to work specifically on the detection of possible threats to EU economic security;
International Development overview
Portfolio: Jutta Urpilainen (Finland, International Partnerships)
Legal Basis: Articles 208, 209, 210 and 211 TFEU
Development lies at the heart of the EU’s foreign policy, with the EU providing 43% of the world’s cooperation funding in 2022, with the EU’s official development assistance reaching EUR 92.8 billion.
Goal: Its primary objective is the reduction and, in the long term, eradication of poverty. Promotes sustainability in all its dimensions – social, environmental, economic and political. Uphold EU values in partnerships.
VDL Agenda: the EU to spend 30% more than we did in 2019 on external action investment in the long-term EU budget,
Funding sources are:
- NDICI
- Budget support (EUR 3 billion in past 3 years, 17% of total Eu external assistance)
- EFSD+
- Guarantees and blending: EUR 51.7 billion external action guarantee
o
- Trust funds (since 2013 new financial regulation)
Example: MFA for Ukraine
European Fund for Sustainable Development Plus (EFSD+)
The European Fund for Sustainable Development Plus (EFSD+) is part of the EU’s investment framework for external action.It is included in the EU’s long-term budget programme for external action: Global Europe – NDICI.
It is a comprehensive instrument that includes
- guarantees
- grants provided through ‘blending’ (a mix of EU grants with bank loans)
- technical assistance to help improve the quality of projects and the implementation of reforms
other support tools to support the development of partner countries
The investment framework also includes the External Action Guarantee and together, the two components deliver** a firepower of €53,45 billion for sustainable development.**The External Action Guarantee has a capacity of €130 billion to guarantee EFSD+ operations. Together with the private sector and thanks to the leverage effect, this may mobilise more than half a trillion euros in investments for 2021-2027.
The European Fund for Sustainable Development Plus is the main financial tool to mobilise investments under Global Gateway – the EU strategy to narrow the global investment gap in infrastructure. The tool will raise up to €135 billion worth of investments in a variety of Global Gateway sectors.
DG INTPA
- At the forefront of EU efforts to implement at global level the EU’s commitments; notably the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement on climate change.
How EU implements development policies
- Funding
- The European Union dedicates around 10% of its budget to external action. EU provides funding in the form of grants, contracts, and budget support to our partner countries. We also work hand-in-hand with international organisations, private bodies and EU member countries to increase the impact of our support.
- Global Gateway
Global Gateway is the European strategy to boost smart, clean and secure connections in digital, energy and transport sectors, and to strengthen health, education and research systems across the world. Aka European answer to Belt and Road initiative and incepted in December 2021. - Global Gateway aims to mobilise up to €300 billion in investments by 2027 through Team Europe approach (EUR 135 billion investments made possible by EU, and EUR 145 billion of planned investments by European financial and development institutions, complemented by grant financing),
Included funds:
- ESDF+, which will cover the EUR 53 billion guarantee volume, which will leverage EUR 232 billion of sustainable investments. Additional financing by grants to develeponent institutions that can blend them with loan.
- Connecting Europe facility (CEF): supports global gateway investments.
Governance:
* Global Gateway projects are developed and delivered jointly by Team Europe,
* Implemented by Presiedent and HR/VP and responsible Cssr.
* EU delegation and MS embassies and project offices help coordinate and implement Global Gateway projects and Team Europe initiatives
* A Global Gateway Board provides strategic guidance to Global Gateway and the development of Team Europe initiatives.
Global Europe: Neighbourhood, Development and International Cooperation Instrument (NDICI) (2021-2027)
Creatd in 2021 and unified several previous funding instruments under one umbrella
- With an** overall allocation of €79.5 billion,** the new Global Europe will cover the EU cooperation with all third countries, except for the pre-accession beneficiaries and the overseas countries and territories from the geographic programmes
The total allocation will be divided as follows:
* €60.38 billion for geographic programmes (at least €19.32 billion for the Neighbourhood, at least €29.18 billion for Sub-Saharan Africa, €8.48 billion for Asia and the Pacific, and €3.39 billion for the Americas and the Caribbean);
* €6.36 billion for thematic programmes (Human Rights and Democracy; Civil Society Organisations; Peace, Stability and Conflict Prevention; and Global Challenges);
* €3.18 billion for rapid response actions.
* Focus on: tackling climate change, supporting eduaciton and human development, fostering diigtalisation, boosting sustainable growth and trade, promoting rule of law and Europaen values
Investment framework:
The new instrument will furthermore contain an investment framework for external action financed from the geographic pillar to raise additional financial resources for sustainable development from the public and private sector
It will consist of the European Fund for SustainableDevelopment (EFSD+) and the External Action Guarantee, with fire-power of €53,45 billion.
Together with the private sector and thanks to the leverage effect, this may mobilise more than half a trillion euro in investments for the period 2021-2027
cross-cutting priorities
- 30% on climate change mitigation
- 85% shoul dhave gender equality as primary objective
- At least 93% of funding will meet the requirements of the OECD Development Assistance Committee and hence count as Official Development Assistance
Initiatives under A Stronger Europe in the World
- Comprehensive Strategy on Africa
- Africa-Europe Week, 14-18 Feb 2022
- Western Balkan Summit Dec 2022
- Post-Cotonou Agreement: is the overarching framework for EU relations with African, Caribbean and Pacific countries.
- EU-AU Summit, 17-18th Feb 2022: A Joint Vision for 2030: The leaders announced an Africa-Europe Investment Package of EUR 150 billion that will support a common ambition for 2030 and AU Agenda 2063
- Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection: Overview
Portfolio: Janez Lenarčič (Slovenia, Crisis Management, DG ECHO)
Legal Basis: Art. 214 TFEU - Humanitarian Aid, Art 196: TFEU: coordinate civil protection systems of MS . This is a supporting competency of the European Union
The EU is the world’s largest donor of humanitarian aid, providing assistance to crisis zones, countries facing post-conflict instability and countries dealing with ‘forgotten crises’.
Yet EU aid accounts for less than 1% of the EU’s total annual budget – just over €2 per EU citizen. VDL agenda to increase this share.
When the EU offers emergency assistance, it does so respecting humanitarian principles of humanity, neutrality, impartiality and independence. This means aid is distributed without any political considerations, and regardless of nationality, religion, gender, ethnic or political affiliation of the people who need help.
- Civil Protection Mechanism
- The Commission plays a key role in** coordinating the disaster response worldwid**e, contributing to at least 75% of the transport and/or operational costs of deployments.
- €11.57 billion, in 2021 prices, was adopted for the entire 7 years of the MFF) for Humanitarian Aid
- The Union Civil Protection Mechanism budget for the next 7 years (2021-2027) amounts to €3.3 billion.
- In addition to the EU countries, there are currently 9 participating states in the Mechanism (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iceland, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Serbia, Türkiye, and Ukraine).
- Satellite maps produced by the Copernicus Emergency Management Service also support civil protection operations
- Following a request for assistance through the Mechanism, the Emergency Response Coordination Centre (ERCC) mobilises assistance or expertise.
- In response to the war in Ukraine, the EU is implementing its largest emergency operation since the creation of the Mechanism, and channels millions of emergency items to Ukraine and the region.
rescEU
- The European Commission upgraded the EU Civil Protection Mechanism and created rescEU to further protect citizens from disasters and manage emerging risks.
- escEU has established a new European reserve of resources (the ‘rescEU reserve’). It includes a fleet of firefighting planes and helicopters, medical evacuation planes, and a stockpile of medical items and field hospitals that can respond to health emergencies.
- The rescEU reserve also includes mobile shelters for those displaced. Furthermore, the EU is also developing a reserve to respond to chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear incidents.
EU englargement
Portfolio: Olivér Várhelyi (Hungary, Neighbourhood and Enlargement)
Legal Basis: Art. 49 TFEU
- Enlargement policy applies to countries currently aspiring to join the EU and potential candidates. The prospect of membership is a powerful stimulus for democratic and economic reforms in countries that want to become EU members.
- All decisions on enlargement policy are based on unanimity amongst EU member states
- During the enlargement process, the Commission helps countries wishing to join the EU to meet the necessary criteria for membership and supports them in implementing the related economic and democratic reforms.
How does enlargement work?
- Any European country which respects the EU values referred to in the Art. 2 TEU and is committed to promoting them can apply to become a member of the EU. Sinceit was founded in 1957, the EU has grown from six countries to 27
Accession Criteria – Copenhagen Criteria
- The first step is for the country to meet the accession criteria. These criteria were defined at a European Council meeting in Copenhagen in 1993, and referred to as the ‘Copenhagen criteria’.
The Copenhagen criteria set a number of democratic, economic and political conditions for countries who want to join the EU:
* 1) stable institutions guaranteeing democracy, the rule of law, human rights and respect for and protection of minorities
* 2) a functioning market economy and the capacity to cope with competition and market forces in the EU
* 3) the ability to take on and effectively implement the obligations of membership, including adherence to the aims of political, economic and monetary union
The EU also needs to be able to integrate new members.
**3-step process: **
* when country is ready, it becomes candidate for membership
* the candidate moves on to formal membership negotiations (initiated through unanimous decision from EU Council), a process that involves the adoption of established EU law, preparations to be in a position to properly apply and enforce it and implementation of judicial, administrative, economic and other reforms necessary for the country to meet the conditions for joining, known as accession criteria.
* When the negotiations and accompanying reforms have been completed to the satisfaction of both sides, the country can join the EU.
Benefits of enlargement
* increased prosperity for all member states: 3 times more trade exchanges between old and new member states, 5 times more among new member states
* greater stability in Europe
* more weight for the EU in global affairs
Funding for enlargement
- The Commission coordinates the Stabilisation and Association process with Western Balkans countries, notably by promoting and supporting alignment of their national legislation and systems with EU laws and standards (the acquis).
- Instrument for Pre-accession Assistance (IPA III), by which the EU supports reforms throughout the accession process with financial and technical assistance; for the period 2021-2027, has a proposed budget of €12.9 billion in constant 2018 prices.
List of candidate countries
Candidates:
Albania
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Moldova
Montenegro
North Macedonia
Serbia
Türkiye
Ukraine
Potential candidates: otential candidate countries do not yet fulfil the requirements for EU membership:
Georgia, Kosovo
European Neighbourhood Policy
- The European Union’s European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer, to their mutual benefit and interest. It was launched in 2003 to help the EU support and foster stability, security and prosperity in its closest neighbourhood
- It was reviewed for the first time in 2011 following arab Spring uprisings
- In 2020, new Communication outlines long-term future of cooperation with Eastern neighbourhood
- The European Neighbourhood Policy governs the EU’s relations with 16 of the its closest Eastern and Southern Neighbours.
- To the South: Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestine, Syria and Tunisia
- To the East: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, the Republic of Moldova and Ukraine.
ENP objectives:
- stabilising neighbouring countries through economic development, employability and youth, - transport and energy connectivity, migration, mobility and security
- promoting key EU interests of good governance, democracy, rule of law and human rights
- The ENP review added thre other priorities: economic development for stabilisation; 2) the security dimension and 3) migration and mobility.
- facilitating cooperation at regional level: Eastern Partnership, Union for the Mediterranean
- At the heart of the EU’s neighbourhood policy lies the** stabilisation of the region, in political, socio-economic and security-related terms. **
Total allocation under Global Europe is EUR 19.3 billion
Trade policy goals
Legal Basis: Art. 3 TFEU and in its scope Art 207 TFEU, Exclusive Competence
The European Union manages its trade and investment relations with non-EU countries through its trade and investment policy.
The EU’s responsibilities cover:
* trade in goods and services
* the commercial aspects of intellectual property, such as patents
* public procurement
* foreign direct investment
- The EU is in prime position when it comes to global trade. The openness of our trade regime has meant that the EU is the biggest player on the global trading scene and remains a good region to do business with.
- With every EUR 1 billion in exports supporting 14 000 jobs in Europe, the EU fights for open, rules-based markets, a level playing field and the highest international standard
Trade policy facts and figures
- The EU is the largest economy in the world. Although growth is projected to be slow, the EU remains the largest economy in the world with a GDP per head of €25 000 for its 440 million consumers.
- The EU is the world’s largest trading block and biggest trade partner for 80 countries (compared to 20 for the US). The EU ranks first in both inbound and outbound international investments
- The average applied tariff for goods imported into the EU is very low. More than 70% of imports enter the EU at zero or reduced tariffs.
The EU’s services markets are highly open and we have arguably the most open investment regime in the world. - Trade in services accounts for 25% of the EU’s GDP, with services exports exceeding €900 billion per year. It also supports 21 million EU jobs directly or indirectly.
Why of Trade agreement negotiations
- By acting together as one, EU countries benefit from increased negotiating power when making trade deals with other countries.
- The EU negotiates trade agreements to strengthen our economy and create jobs.
- EU trade agreements help to do that in two ways. Trade agreements let European businesses:
access more easily and at lower prices the raw materials and other inputs they need. This helps them stay competitive.
compete more effectively abroad and export more to countries and regions outside the EU - In addition, projecting our rules and values in trade agreements helps the EU shape globalisation, especially on issues like human rights, working conditions and environmental protection.
Process of FTAs
Process after the Lisbon Treaty
Trade Negotiations:
1. First, the European Commission requests authorisation from the Council of the EU (‘the Council’) to negotiate a trade agreement with a trade partner. The Council’s authorisation can include ‘directives’. These are often referred to as the ‘mandate’ and set out what the Commission should achieve in the agreement.
2. Then the Commission negotiates with the trading partner on behalf of the EU.
3. Once the Commission completes the negotiations, it publishes the agreement and presents the deal to the Council and the European Parliament.
4. The Council and the European Parliament examine the final deal and decide whether or not to approve it.
5. If they both approve, the EU can sign the agreement. The partner can then ratify this signed agreement, after which the Council can declare the agreement concluded.
6. If the trade agreement covers areas where EU countries have responsibility, it can only be fully concluded after EU countries also ratify and sign the agreement
Effects of Lisbon:
- Parliament’s powers have increased significantly – it is now co-legislator with the Council on trade matters.
- Foreign direct investment is now an EU power under trade policy, i.e. the EU can both conclude international agreements and adopt autonomous measures on FDI.
- Qualified majority voting becomes the general rule in Council for all aspects of trade policy, Unanimity is required only in the following specific circumstances:
* where commitments on cultural/audiovisual services risk undermining the EU’s cultural and linguistic diversity
* where commitments on social, educational or health services risk seriously disturbing the national organisation of these services and impeding member governments’ ability to deliver them
* where unanimity is required for the adoption of internal rules
Trade policy review 2021
The TPR has emerged against a backdrop of various global challenges to trade, such as: climate change, COVID-19 recoveries, international political tensions, global supply-chains issues, and digitalisation.
The EU’s trade policy aims to support the European Green Deal and Digital Strategy goals and reinforce the EU’s geopolitical ambitions and resilience through open strategic autonomy. OSA entails:
- Reinforcing the EU Single Market’s openness and attractiveness;
- Assessing and supporting supply chain sustainability and resilience;
- Asserting the EU’s strategic interests, upholding a rules-based international trading order and addressing unfair practices.
The new strategy will strengthen the capacity of trade to support the digital and climate transitions:
- First, by contributing to achieve the European Green Deal objectives.
- Second, by removing unjustified trade barriers in the digital economy to reap the benefits of digital technologies in trade.
**The key objectives of the TPR are:
**
* Anchoring the EU’s global regulatory role;
* “Greening” EU trade policy to be more sustainable;
* More robustly enforcing trade agreement provisions, and;
* Better coordinating EU internal and external policies to support its trade policy.
Responding to current challenges, the strategy prioritises a major reform of the World Trade Organization, including global commitments on trade and climate, new rules for digital trade, reinforced rules to tackle competitive distortions, and restoring its system for binding dispute settlement.
announced new instruments
* anti-coercion instrument
* FDI screening
* export control regulation
* CBAM
EU-US Trade and Technology Council (2021)
- The TTC serves as a forum for the EU and the US to coordinate approaches to key global trade, economic and technology issues, and to deepen transatlantic trade and economic relations based on shared democratic values.
- D**evelop a closer transatlantic partnership on the green and digital transformation of our economies **
- In parallel, the EU and the US have set up a Joint Technology Competition Policy Dialogue that will focus on developing common approaches and strengthening the cooperation on competition policy and enforcement in the tech sectors.
- For the EU to enhance its influence in this area, it needs to develop a more strategic approach to international regulatory cooperation, in particular in relation to the green and digital transitions.
BREXIT
Chief Negotiator: Michel Barnier (FR)
Legal Basis: Article 50, TFEU
The United Kingdom left the European Union on 31 January 2020.
Withdrawal agreement
- The Withdrawal Agreement concluded between the European Union and the United Kingdom establishes the terms of the United Kingdom’s orderly withdrawal from the EU, in accordance with Article 50 of the Treaty of the European Union.
- -The Withdrawal Agreement entered into force on 1 February 2020, after having been agreed on 17 October 2019. It consists amongst others of a Protocol on Ireland and Northern Ireland.
Contents
* * Citizens’ rights: protecting the life choices of more than 5 million EU citizens in the United Kingdom, and over 1 million United Kingdom nationals in EU countries, and protecting their right to stay
* * Separation issues: ensured a smooth winding-down and enabled an orderly withdrawal of the United Kingdom, including, amongst others: protects existing intellectual property rights including geographical indications; * addressed the use and protection of data
* * A transition period (1 February – 31 December 2020) during which the EU treated the United Kingdom as if it were a Member State, with the exception of participation in the EU institutions and governance structures
* The EU and the United Kingdom used these months to negotiate the EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement.
* * The financial settlement: ensuring that the United Kingdom and the EU honour all financial obligations undertaken while the United Kingdom was a member of the EU.
* * Ireland: a legally-operative solution that avoids a hard border on the island of Ireland, protects the all-island economy and the Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement in all its dimensions, and safeguards the integrity of the EU Single Market.
EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement
- The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement (entered into forec on 1 May 2021) concluded between the EU and the UK sets out preferential arrangements in areas such as trade in goods and in services, digital trade, intellectual property, public procurement, aviation and road transport, energy, fisheries, social security coordination, law enforcement and judicial cooperation in criminal matters, thematic cooperation and participation in Union programmes
- It is underpinned by provisions ensuring a level playing field and respect for fundamental rights.
- While it will by no means match the level of economic integration that existed while the UK was an EU Member State, the Trade and Cooperation Agreement goes beyond traditional free trade agreements and provides a solid basis for preserving our longstanding friendship and cooperation.
The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement consists of
* a Free Trade Agreement, with ambitious cooperation on economic, social, environmental and fisheries issues,
* a close partnership on citizens’ security,
* an overarching governance framework.
Northern Ireland Protocol
- Since very early on in the Withdrawal Agreement negotiations, both the United Kingdom and the EU acknowledged the unique circumstances on the island of Ireland. They recognised the necessity of safeguarding the 1998 Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement, avoiding a hard border on the island of Ireland and protecting North-South cooperation.
This solution was found in the form of the Protocol on Ireland and Northern Ireland, which:
- Avoids a hard border between Ireland and Northern Ireland, thereby enabling the smooth functioning of the all-island economy and safeguarding the Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement in all its dimensions;
- ensures the integrity of the EU’s Single Market for goods, along with all the guarantees it offers in terms of consumer protection, public and animal health protection, and combatting fraud and trafficking,
renegotiation
* The main point of contention for the UK is the European Court of Justice’s (ECJ) responsibility to adjudicate on disputes that arise from interpretation of EU law (where the protocol applies them to Northern Ireland).
* Until resignation of Frost, UK continued to defer because of this issue
* Solution was only foudn through Windsor agreement from 2023
