EOTT - Core Political Ideas 1.2 - Liberalism Flashcards
Definition of Liberalism
Liberalism developed in the 18th century after the revolutions in France and America and the development of capitalism. It is essentially a product of The Enlightenment. Humans are rational creatures capable of understanding the world and making decisions for themselves. The defining feature of liberalism is its belief in individualism and freedom.
Core ideas and principles
- Individualism
- Freedom / Liberty - JSM
- The State - JL
- Rationalism - MW
- Equality / Social Justice - BF
- Liberal Democracy
- Individualism
a) The individual takes priority over the group (opposite of socialism).
b) Power of state should be limited
c) Foundational equality - everyone is born equal with equal rights (opposed to conservative idea of natural hierarchy)
d) Humans are essentially rational, i.e although selfish, we understand that reason, not force, should be used to resolve conflict. More positive view of human nature than conservatives.
e) Two contrasting views of individualism:
- Egotistical individualism (Classical liberals believe humans are selfish and seek only their own pleasure)
- Developmental individualism (Modern liberals believe that freedom means the freedom to achieve your potential. This involves others, so if some people are not free, none of us are.
- Freedom / Liberty - JSM
a) The ability to make decisions in your own interests based on your view of human nature.
b) Classical liberals like J S Mill believe freedom means simply the absence of restraint, the ability to do what you want as long as it does not interfere with the freedom of others. This is called negative freedom.
c) Positive freedom is not just the absence of restraint but the ability to achieve goals and potential (i.e. not have one’s talents wasted). Without resources some individuals will never be free, so state must intervene to provide, e.g. education and healthcare.
d) Tolerance. The acceptance of a wide range of lifestyles, cultures and beliefs. J S Mill believes that tolerance is rational, promotes freedom and is good for society. Also, beliefs must be defended even if you do not life the views that are being portrayed.
- The State - JL
a) It is necessary to avoid chaos, but has the potential for harm as it can remove individual liberty. Therefore, it must be limited - limited government.
b) Therefore, governments need to be limited by checks and balances, codified constitution, etc.
c) Classical liberals believe the state should not interfere with the free-market economy, (e.g. opposed to protectionism - i.e. putting tariffs on trade).
d) Two different views.
1) Classical liberals believe state should be a ‘night watchman’
2) Modern liberals want an enabling state, i.e. the state should offer a ‘hand up not a hand out’ to overcome the inequalities of capitalism. So state intervention and welfare are required to protect the vulnerable from exploitation.
- Rationalism - MW
a) Humans are rational, capable of reason and logic based on facts and evidence rather than emotion.
b) Therefore (unlike conservatives) liberals believe the individual is the best judge when it comes to making decisions and deciding right from wrong.
c) Therefore, governments and authority are mistrusted; no need for strong government (people should have as much freedom as possible).
d) Although humans are selfish, liberals are optimistic and believe in a progressive society based on rationalism (i.e. rational individuals believe that co-operation is more sensible than conflict).
- Equality / Social Justice - BF
a) Individuals are of equal value and should be treated impartially and fairly by society.
b) Foundational equality - we are born equal with natural rights and have equal value which cannot be taken away. Therefore we should be judged by the ‘content of our character’ (Martin Luther King), and governed by the rule of law.
c) This equality under law, i.e. all must be treated equally by the law, is called formal equality. Hence liberals are opposed to any form of discrimination.
d) Equality of opportunity/ Everyone should have the same opportunity to get on in life. This does not mean we will all be socially or economically equal because everyone is different (e.g. different skills or effort). Different to view to socialists - they believe in equality of outcome - liberals say this prevents liberty.
e) Modern Liberals believe in a meritocracy which the state can help to create.
- Liberal Democracy
A) A democracy that balances the peoples wishes(through elections) with limited government (state) and a respect for civil liberties
B) J S Mill, however, was suspicious of democracy (could lead to tyranny of the majority). This could threaten private property and property owners (hence suspicious of universal suffrage - everyone having the vote).
C) Modern liberals favour democracy it is crucial in limiting the power of the state (linked to the benefit of pluralism). Promotes free speech, political participation, pressure groups, a wide range of political parties, etc.
D) Modern liberals also tend to favour PR as a way of ensuring minority views are heard.
Different views and tensions within liberalism
- Classical liberalism (common in Victorian age )
- Modern liberalism (JR)
1) Classical liberalism (common in Victorian age )
A) Negative freedom (Do what you like as long as it doesn’t affect other’s freedom - a part of Thatcherism)
B) Atomism (Humans are egotistical andrational. Leave them alone and all will prosper. Jeremy Bentham, 1748-1832, developed utilitarianism - ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number’ - flaw = this could lead to the suppression of a minority)
C) State is only a night-watchman. Belief in the minimal state- the state should be as small as possible and should never interfere in the free market or hinder personal liberties.
D) Individual rights are natural
E) Laissez-faire capitalism - the free market and free trade must be unregulated.
F) Rejection of welfare state - this destroys wealth (through too much taxation). Influenced by social Darwinism, I.e. inequality is natural.
G) Unlike anarchists, no rejection of state completely (it is needed to protect us from each other).
H) Suspicious of democracy. Can lead to mob rule. Equality and freedom are contradictory.
2) Modern liberalism (JR)
A) T.H Green (1836-82) argued that capitalism and an inactive state had failed to tackle poverty and social division and had decreased not increased freedom.
B) In early 20th century, Liberal governments led by Asquith and Lloyd George introduced welfare measures. Belief in positive freedom - I.e. the role of the state can be positive in advancing freedom. Beveridge Report (1942)
C) J S Mill argued that some will fail to thrive through no fault of their own (e.g. lack of education). The state must act to help - this is called developmental individualism, rather than egotistical individualism where a person has no interest in the fulfilment of others.
D) Keynesianism. J M Keynes - state intervention and investment in the economy is required, e.g. progression taxation, universal welfare and free education. (N.B. Liberalism has influenced both conservatism and socialism - however Keynes was a liberal)
E) There is a link between modern liberals and New Labour - however liberals reject the ‘cradle to grave’ socialist vision.
F) Unlike classical liberals, modern liberals support democracy and subsidiarity.
G) Both types of liberals focus on the rational, self-interested individual rather than on any group or collective body.
Liberal thinkers
John Locke (1632-1704)
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
John Rawls (1921-2002)
Betty Friedan (1921-2006)
John Locke (1632-1704)
a) Limited government. Government should be limited and based on consent from below (not from tradition or religion)
b) Rights to ‘liberty, life and property’ must be protected.
c) Humans are not naturally violent/chaotic (not like Hobbes). However, the state was needed to judge disputes)
d) Supporter of mechanistic theory - the state is not organism, it is an artificial creation devised by man to protect freedom.
e) Social contract theory - Government is based on a contract between the people and the state. The people agree to give up some of their freedom in return for the protection of the law. However, if government abuses its power then citizens would rebel.
f) Separation of powers prevents tyranny.
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
a) Wrote ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’ (1972). In order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career, an education and own property.
b) Women are rational and independent beings capable of reason.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
a) Harm principal. Individuals should be free to do anything except bath other individuals. Therefore it is acceptable to harm oneself (but not others, e.g. smoking).
b) Tolerance of lifestyles, religions, etc. Just because a belief is popular does not necessarily make it correct. There is no one right way to live.
c) In ‘On Liberty’ (1859), Mill argues for free speech to create a marketplace of ideas and arguments.
d) Utilitarianism - humans must pursue happiness and pleasure.
e) Universal suffrage would lead to the tyranny of the majority - hence franchise should be based on educational qualifications. However, pro-votes for women.
f) In later years argued for a more active state to tackle social problems (rather than blaming the working classes).
