CHAPTER 1 Flashcards
What is democracy?
- A political system based on rule by the demos / the people as a whole rather than any section / class / group within society
- People power
- All the citizens are equally entitled to participate in the society’s decisions about its policies.
- Involves the concept of popular participation
What is universal suffrage?
The right for all adults to vote (however adulthood is defined)
What is political participation?
The involvement of citizens in politics though, for example, voting, memberships of a political party or the activities of pressure groups, in order to shape policy making
What is consent?
Assent / Permission
- in politics, it usually imples an agreement to be governed or ruled
Who wrote ‘On Democracy’ and in which year was it published?
Robert A. Dahl
How many key measures of democracy did Robert A. Dahl describe in ‘On Democracy’?
5
What 5 key measures of democracy did Robert A. Dahl describe in ‘On Democracy’?
- Participation
- Voting equality
- Understanding
- Agenda setting
- Universal
Define ‘participation’ in the context on Robert A. Dahl’s 5 key measures of democracy
Before a decision is made, all have an equal and effective opportunity to make their opinions known to others about which decision should be made
Define ‘voting equality’ in the context on Robert A. Dahl’s 5 key measures of democracy
When a decision is to be made, every member must have an equal and effective opportunity to vote, and all votes must be counted as equal (one person = one vote)
Define ‘understanding’ in the context on Robert A. Dahl’s 5 key measures of democracy
Each person must have equal and effective opportunities for learning about the relevant alternative choices and their likely outcomes
Define ‘agenda setting’ in the context on Robert A. Dahl’s 5 key measures of democracy
Each person must have the opportunity to decide how to set the agenda and what to place on the agenda so that past decisions are always open to be revisited
Define ‘universal’ in the context on Robert A. Dahl’s 5 key measures of democracy
All adults should have the same rights, as citizens, that are necessary for participation, voting equality, understanding and setting the agenda
When did the UK political system become democratic?
- The UK has democratic roots that go back as far as the Magna Carta of 1215
- The UK system only became democratic since the granting of universal suffrage by the Equal Franchise Act of 1928
- The Equal Franchise Act meant that the democratic rights for effective political participation became universal
What is legitimacy?
- The right to rule / Rightfulness
Why is democracy so important?
Democracy is of central importance in politics
- It provides the basis for legitimacy, and is therefore the key to political stability
- It provieds those in power with the legitimate right to rule
- It places an obligation of the people to obey the law (in atleast three ways)
1) Through consent
- citizens implicitly invest political authority with a ‘right to rule’ each time they participate in the political process
- therefore, it underpins legitimacy by expanding the opportunities for effective political participation (most importantly through voting, but also through activities such as joining a political party or pressure group, and having the chance to serve in public office)
2) Ensures that political power is widely dispersed, each group having a political voice of some kind or other
- as such, it gives rise to a process of compromise, conciliation and negotiation that allows people with different interests and preferences to live together in conditions of relative peace and order
3) Ensures that the political system fairly reflects the views of the people
Which questions does the issue of legitimacy raise?
2 important questions
1) What makes the powers exercised by a government legitimate?
2) Why shoudl citizens obey the laws of the state?
How many types of democracy are there, and what are they?
2
Direct democracy
Indirect / Representative democracy
What is direct democracy?
A form of democracy that us based on the direct, immediate and continuous participation of citizens in the tasks of government.
As such, there is no distinction between government and the people.
Therefore, it is a system of popular self-government
- associated with the origins of democracy
What are the key features of direct democracy?
3
1) Popular participation is direct in that the people ‘make’ policy decisions - they do not merely choose who will rule on their behalf
2) Popular participation is immediate in that the people ‘are’ the government - there is no separate class of professional politicians
3) Popular participation is continuous in that the people engage in politics on a regular and ongoing basis - all decisions are made by the people
What are the origins of democracy?
- usually traced back to Ancient Greece, and notably its pre-eminent city state / polis
- from about 500 to 300 BCE, a form of democracy operated in Athens that has served ever since as the model of ‘classical’ democracy
What was Athenian democracy?
- a very particular form of democracy, wuite different from the form that are found in the modern world
- in particular, it relied on the participation of all citizens in open assemblies which made all the key decisions
How many institutions was Athenian democracy built upon, and what are they?
3
- The Eklessia / Assembly
- The Boule / Council
- The Dikasteria / Popular Courts
What is the Eklessia / Assembly in Athenian democracy?
- The main governing body
- Any citizen could attend, debate and vote on all the major decisions such as declaring war, foreign policy, making and revising laws
- Decisions were made by majority vote
- In the Assembly, all citizens had the rights that are necessary for participation, voting equality, understanding and settling the agenda
- However, only the very best speakers, such as Demosthenes, could hold the attention of the demanding crown so a small elite of the best orators often dominated the Assembly
What is the Boule / Council in Athenian Democracy?
- Made up of 500 men
- Met every day to do the hands-on work of running the stae
- Council members were chosen by lot and only served for a term of one year
- Drawing by lot / Sortition was seen as more democractic than elections because it could not be affected by money or popularity, and would not lead to a professional class of politicians separate from the people
What is the Dikasteria / Popular Courts in Athenian democracy?
- Made up of 501 jurors chosen each day by lot from male citizens over the age of 30
- Resolved court cases brough by the people
- This principle is still active in the UK today, where juries are randomly selected from those between 18 and 70, who are on the electoral register
- The aim is to ensure a justice system that is fair, democratic and independant
What is sortition?
- The use of random selection to fill public offices
- Aims to create public bodies which are composed of a representative sample of people
Define the term ‘representative democracy’
- A limited and indirect form of democracy
- It operates through the ability if representatives to speak for, or act on behalf of, the people
- At the heart is the process through which representatives can be chosen and can be removed, which is, in practice, usually done through regular and popular elections
What is a representative democracy?
- The dominant form of democracy in the modern world because it solves the problem in direct democracy: that only a small percentage of people can or want to spend their time learning about, debating and voting on political issues.
- Representative democracy is a way of voters electing a small group of representatives who work full time on getting informed , debating and voting on political issue on behalf of the people
- In a representative democracy, people acquire the power to make political decisions by means of a competitive struggle for the people’s vote
- Those who win elections can claim to ‘represent’ the people and the legitimate right to govern
What are the key features of a representative democracy?
3
1) Popular participation is indirect - the public do not exercise power themselves, they choose (usually by election) who will rule on their behalf
2) Popular participation is mediated - the people are linked to their government through representative institutions
3) Popular participation in government is limited - it is infrequent and brief, being restricted to the act of voting every few years
What principle is direct democracy based on?
Popular participation
What principle is representative democracy based on?
Popular control
What is popular control?
Ways of ensuring that professional politicians represent the people and not themselves - this is the role of elections and relies at the most basic level on the people exercising their right to vote
What is the basic condition for a representative democracy?
Democratic elections
What are democratic elections?
Election that are based on the following three rules:
1) Freedom, fairness and regularity
- voters can participate freely and express their own views
2) Universal suffrage
- all adults can vote and there is voting equality, based on the principle of one person, one vote
3) Party and candidate competition
- voters have a choice and effective opportunities for learning about the relevant alternative choices and their likely outcomes
Describe mass participation in representative democracy in the UK
Historically in the UK, mass participation in representative democracy has been limited to voting in general election to select MPs and in local elections to select local councillors.
HOWEVER
The number of opportunities for participation has increased with voters, depending on where they live, now also able to vote in a wide range of elections including:
- Elections in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland for the devolved government since their first elections in 1998
- Elections for the London Mayor and Greater London Authority since 2000
- Elections for metro mayors, such as the Mayor of Greater Manchester, since 2017
- Elections for Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) since 1979, which came to an end with the 2019 European Parliament Election
- Elections for Police Crime Commissioners, who make sure that local police meet the needs of the community, since 2012
Advantages of Direct Democracy / Disadvantages of Representative Democracy
GENUINE DEMOCRACY
DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS THE ONLY PURE FORM OF DEMOCRACY
- This is because it ensures that people only have to obey laws that they make themselves
- Popular participation in government is the very stuff of freedom (it is how the people determine their collective destiny / their ‘general will’)
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY ALWAYS MEANS THAT THERE IS A GULF BETWEEN GOVERNMENT AND THE PEOPLE
- This can lead to political apathy because citizens feel powerless when they want to make a change
- Governments therefore govern in the name of the people, but, in practice, the people may have little meaningful control over government (seems to be a common attitude in the UK)
Influence over decision making in the UK (DATA)
The Hansard Society ‘Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report’
How much influence, if any, do you feel you have over decision making in the country as a whole?
A great deal of influence = 1%
Some influence = 14%
Not very much influence = 36%
None at all = 47%
Advantages of Direct Democracy / Disadvantages of Representative Democracy
PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
DIRECT DEMOCRACY CREATES BETTER INFORMED AND MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE CITIZENS
- In this sense, it has educational benefits
- Direct and regular popular participation in government encourages people to take more interest in politics and to better understand their own society (both how it works and how it should work)
IN REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY, WITH VOTES TAKING PLACE SO INFREQUENTLY, PEOPLE CAN LITERALLY SWITCH OFF FROM POLITICS
- As a result, effective political understanding decreases
- This reduces the ability of people to learn about the relevant alternative choices and their likely outcomes, which are necessary for effective participation and voting equality
Discussing government and politics with others (DATA)
The Hansard Society ‘Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report’
How often, if at all, do you discuss government and politics with others?
Nearly every day = 10%
A few times a week = 22%
A few times a month = 19%
Less often = 19%
Never = 30%
Advantages of Direct Democracy / Disadvantages of Representative Democracy
END OF PROFESSIONAL POLITICS
DIRECT DEMOCRACY REDUCES, OR REMOVES, THE PUBLIC’S DEPENDENCE ON SELF-SERVING PROFESSIONAL POLITICIANS
- This increases public trust, political understanding and the development of long-term solutions whilst decreasing corruption, which means that decisions will have real legitimacy in the eyes of the people
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY PLACES TOO MUCH FAITH IN POLITICIANS, WHO ARE ALWAYS LIABLE TO DISTORT PUBLIC OPINION BY IMPOSING THEIR OWN VIEWS AND PREFERENCES ON IT
- It therefore amounts to ‘government by politicians’, acting only in the name of the people
- It is argued that this political class will not be socially representative of the wider public (in terms of age, gender, wealth, ethnicity etc.)
- It is argued that this political class is interested in furthering its own objectives over those of the people, and is more interested in winning elections than arriving at long-term solutions
- In the UK, this is increasingly a widely held attitude (in 2019, 63% felt the political system was rigged to the advantage of the rich and powerful - The Hansard Society ‘Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report’)
Advantages of Direct Democracy / Disadvantages of Representative Democracy
LEGITIMATE GOVERNMENT
DIRECT DEMOCRACY ENSURES THAT RULE IS LEGITIMATE, IN THE SENS THAT PEOPLE ARE MORE LIKELY TO ACCEPT DECISIONS THAT THEY HAVE MADE THEMSELVES
- When citizens make political decisions directly, they have to take responsibility for them (there is no one else to blame)
- This helps ensure political stability and legitimacy for decisions
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY IN THE UK IS EXPERIENCING SOMETHING OF A CRISIS
- Voter turnout remains low and people feel increasingly disengaged from politicians, political institutions and processes
- Overall satisfaction with the system of governing in the UK has been on a downward trend from 36% in the first Hansard Audit in 2004 to 25% in 2019
Advantages of Representative Democracy / Disadvantages of Direct Democracy
PRACTICAL DEMOCRACY
DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS ONLY ACHIEVABLE IN RELATIVELY SMALL COMMUNITIES, ESPECIALLY IN THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT BY MASS MEETING
- Such a form of democracy is widely considered to be unworkable in modern political conditions
- Athenian citizens devoted a great deal of time and energy to political activity, and were also able to meet together in a single place
- Such a high level of face-to-face interaction cannot be achieved in societies with a population of 10,000s or millions of people
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY IS THE ONLY FORM OF DEMOCRACY THAT CAN OPERATE IN LARGE, MODERN SOCIETIES LIKE THE UK
- It is therefore a practical solution to the problem of popular rule (this does not mean that representative democracy cannot be complemented by aspects of direct democracy)
What is the strength of representative democracy?
- It places ultimate power in the hands of the public (the power to decide who governs), while leaving day-to-day policy making in the hands of experts (professional politicians)
- It is therefore based on a compromise between the need for ‘government by the people’ (popular participation) and the need for ‘government for the people’ (government in the public interest)
- As representative democracy usually operates through the mechanism of elections, its effectiveness is therefore based on the extent to which the electoral process gives people control over the government
Advantages of Representative Democracy / Disadvantages of Direct Democracy
DIVISION OF LABOUR IN POLITICS
ONE OF THE DRAWBACKS OF DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS THAT IT MEANS THAT POLITICS IS A JOB FOR ALL CITIZENS, RESTRICTING THEIR ABILITY TO CARRY OUT OTHER DUTIES AND ACTIVITIES
- The answer in ancient Athens was simple but deeply undemocratic: foreigners and slaves did the bulk of the work, and women looked after family life
- The ‘citizens’ of Athens constituted only a tiny minority of those who lived within the city state and so rights were by no means universal
- The groups excluded from political participation and voting equality included women, men classified as ‘immigrants’ and slaves, who made up atleast three-fifths of the population of Athens
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY IS MORE EFFICIENT BECAUSE ORDINARY CITIZENS ARE RELIEVED OF THE BURDEN OF DAY-TO-DAY DECISION MAKING
- They simply have to choose who they want to govern them
Advantages of Representative Democracy / Disadvantages of Direct Democracy
GOVERNMENT BY EXPERTS
DIRECT DEMOCRACY IS NOT A SENSIBLE WAY TO MAKE COMPLEX DECISIONS
- This is because many of the big issues facing the UK don’t have easy or clear solutions
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY PLACES DECISION MAKING IN THE HANDS OF POLITICANS WHO HAVE BETTER EDUCATION AND GREATER EXPERTISE THAN THE MASS OF PEOPLE
- They can therefore govern for the people using their superior understanding to act in the public interest
Advantages of Representative Democracy / Disadvantages of Direct Democracy
POLTICAL STABILITY
DIRECT DEMOCRACY CAN ENGAGE PEOPLE TOO MUCH, WHICH MAY CREATE DEEP DIVISIONS IN SOCIETY
- In cases where direct democracy creates clear winners and losers over a political choice, it will be very hard for the losers to see the political choice as legitimate
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY MAINTAINS POLITICAL STABILITY BY HELPING TO DISTANCE ORDINARY CITIZENS FROM POLITICS, THEREBY ENCOURAGING THEM TO ACCEPT COMPROMISE
- A certain level of apathy is helpful in maintaining political stability
- The more involved in decision making citizens are, the more passionate and committed they may become
KEY DEBATE SUMMARY: Is direct democracy superior to representative democracy?
FOR
- Direct democracy is genuine democracy with direct, immediate and continuous participation
- The continuous participation of direct democracy allows for the personal development of citizens
- Direct democracy ends the reliance on a political class by returning power to the people to ensure decisions are in the public interest not the interest of the political class
- Legitimacy and political stability are both created by the direct involvement of citizens in decision making
AGAINST
- Representative democracy is the only practicable form of democracy in modern societies
- Representative democracy creates a division of labour which is far more efficient than continuous participation
- Representative democracy allows for government by experts; it is the sensible way to make complex decisions in the public interest
- Representative democracy is built on compromise, helping to mainting political stability
What is a participation crisis?
The idea that there is a crisis in citizen involvement in the processes aimed at influencing the government and shaping politics due to the lack of interest by a significant number of citizens. This creates a serious issue for democracy as it undermines the legitimacy of elected institutions.
What do many consider the main modern concern about democracy in the UK?
- growth of political apathy (which many see as nothing less than a participation crisis)
- how can democracy be healthy when, despite increasing opportunities for participation, more and more citizens seem to be uninterested or unwilling to engage in political life?
Where has political apathy been most evident in?
- not voting
- not joining political parties
- not engaging with politics due to high levels of dissatisfaction with the current political system
Different actions people take when they feel strongly about an issue
- title of report
- where data was taken from
- Which of these would you be prepared to do if you felt strongly enough about an issue
- The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
What percentage of people would donate money or pay a membership fee to a political party?
11%
The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
What percentage of people would take part in a march, demonstration of strike?
18%
The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
What percentage of people would take an active part in a campaign?
18%
The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
What percentage of people would donate or pay a membership fee to a charity?
20%
The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
What percentage of people would create or sign a petition?
29%
The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
What percentage of people would create or sign an e-petition?
34%
The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
What percentage of people would contact a local councillor or MP (of any UK parliament, not just Westminster)?
37%
The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
What percentage of people would vote in an election?
58%
The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
The Hansard Society Audit of Political Engagement 16: The 2019 Report
What percentage of people would do none of the following:
- donate money or pay a membership fee to a political party
- take part in a march, demonstration of strike
- take an active part in a campaign
- donate money or pay a membership fee to a charity
- create of sign a petition
- create or sign an e-petition
- contact a local councillor or MP (of any parliament, not just Westminster)
- vote in an election
22%
Evidence for and against: Participation Crisis
VOTING AND NON-VOTING
FOR
1) VOTER PARTICIPATION IS SLOWLY ON THE RISE IN RECENT ELECTIONS
2) THE NUMBER OF OPPORTUNITIES TO VOTE HAS BEEN INCREASING
3) THERE IS INCREASED USE OF REFERENDUMS
Evidence for and against : Participation Crisis
VOTING AND NON-VOTING
AGAINST
1) HOWEVER, PARTICPATION IS STILL VERY POOR COMPARED TO ELECTIONS DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
2) IT IS CLEAR THAT NOT EVERYONE IS PARTICIPATING EQUALLY
3) TURNOUT IS EVEN LOWER IN THESE ELECTIONS (THE NEW OPPORTUNITIES TO VOTE)
4) THERE IS LOW TURNOUT IN MANY REFERENDUMS
Evidence for and against: Participation Crisis
VOTING AND NON-VOTING
FOR
1) VOTER PARTICIPATION IS SLOWLY ON THE RISE IN RECENT ELECTIONS
Since 2001, there has been a slow rise in the voter turnout, back up to 69% in 2017 from the low of 59% in 2001 (although it fell back in 2019 to 67%) suggesting participation is on the rise
Evidence for and against: Participation Crisis
VOTING AND NON-VOTING
AGAINST
1) HOWEVER, PARTICPATION IS STILL VERY POOR COMPARED TO ELECTIONS DURING THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
- General elections in the UK with universal suffrage have been in place since 1928 and, in the period between 1945 and 1992, the average turnout usually remained above 75%, with a post-war high of 84% being achieved in 1950
- The 2001 general election recorded a turnout of 59%, the lowest figure since 1918 while the recovery to 67% in 2019 is still well below pre-1992 levels
- There is a consistent pattern in local elections of much lower turnout that for general elections, possibly because people perceive local councils to have limited power.
Evidence for and against: Participation Crisis
VOTING AND NON-VOTING
AGAINST
2) IT IS CLEAR THAT NOT EVERYONE IS PARTICIPATING EQUALLY
- A minority is engaging more frequently and in more ways.
- The make-up of this group is likely to be unrepresentative of society as a whole but rather made up for those with higher income, managerial and professional jobs and higher levels of education.
- This pattern was clearly evident in the 2019 election, where turnout among those with degrees and above was 69% while it was 59% for those with other qualification and those with no qualification.
- Higher managerial, middle manager and professional workers has a turnout of 68% while semi-skilled, unskilled workers and those not working had a turnout of 53% (Ipsos MORI estimates)
Evidence for and against: Participation Crisis
VOTING AND NON-VOTING
FOR
2) THE NUMBER OF OPPORTUNITIES TO VOTE HAS BEEN INCREASING
Since 1979, there has been a widening in the number of voting opportunities in the UK, with European elections starting in 1979 and elections to the devolved assemblies in Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland from 1998
Evidence for and against: Participation Crisis
VOTING AND NON-VOTING
AGAINST
3) TURNOUT IS EVEN LOWER IN THESE ELECTIONS (THE NEW OPPORTUNITIES TO VOTE)
- The turnout in these elections has remained consistently lower than for general elections during the same period.
- This could be attributed to voter fatigue from too many opportunities to engage or down to institutions themselves.
- The European Parliament was perceived as remote and lacking power, while it had been argued that if the devolved governments were given more power then more people would be inclined to turn out and vote in the elections.
