Disease Stakeholders

Question 1

What must individuals have in order to be able to take actions to help manage of spread of infectious diseases

Answer 1

They need to be aware of the diseases, how they are transmitted and the conditions which favour their spread

Question 2

How can individuals help manage the spread of disease

Answer 2

-Taking precautions and exercising social responsibility
-Refraining from participating in risk-taking behaviour
-Keeping themselves updated of information such as travel advisories and follow them

Question 3

What are limitations to what individuals can do to manage the spread of infectious diseases

Answer 3

Limited resources, mindset and culture, literacy rates

Question 4

Why is limited resources a limitation to individuals in managing spread of infectious diseases

Answer 4

Individuals have limited resources and is beyond them to implement measures that would benefit many(impact is limited). Some may be limited by poverty due to low socioeconomic status and may not be able to carry out certain precautionary measures because they lack the resources to do so.

Question 5

Why is mindset and culture a limitation to individuals in managing spread of infectious diseases

Answer 5

It can be difficult to change mindsets and personal or cultural habits. Other stakeholders can raise awareness but it is up to individuals to act

Question 6

Why is literary rates a limitation to individuals in managing spread of infectious diseases

Answer 6

Low literacy rates in some countries limit what individuals can do as they may not have access to information and are unable to comprehend knowledge behind infectious diseases

Question 7

Give an example of how individuals have limited impact

Answer 7

Individual efforts such as emptying stagnant water, using insecticides and mosquito repellents, and wearing covered clothing, can reduce personal risk of contracting malaria. However, in high-transmission areas, like Sub-Saharan Africa, where mosquitoes breed in numerous and widespread locations, individual actions alone are insufficient.

Question 8

What is the role of communities in managing infectious diseases

Answer 8

They have better ground-up understanding of the area and their people. They are able to provide suggestions to how strategies should be implemented and community-led strategies empower residents to develop own solutions based on knowledge of local solutions. People may be more receptive to participate as they have greater trust in community members and the advice they provide

Question 9

Give an example of collaborative agreement between a community and government in managing spread of disease

Answer 9

In Namibia, collaborative agreement between Society for Family Health and Ministry of Health and Social Services. Funding from Global Fund to fight AIDs, tuberculosis and malaria. Community-based malaria prevention program where communities work in close collaboration with community leaders and health facilities supporting prevention activities, surveillance & distribution of mosquito nets

Question 10

How can communities contribute to disease control

Answer 10

Introducing possible disease control strategies, deciding when and where strategies will be implemented and by whom, engaging health workers to train and monitor members

Question 11

Give an example of how community is more trusted in carrying out initiatives

Answer 11

During the Ebola outbreak in West Africa, community leaders played a vital role in response efforts. Community chiefs in Liberia worked with their members to establish safer burial practices, not involving washing of the deceased, that respected cultural norms while minimising transmission risk.

Question 12

Description of Sierra Leone Community led Total Sanitation (CLTS)

Answer 12

A method to rapidly increase sustainable sanitation coverage nationwide. It is a community-led approach to remove practice of open defecation through awareness raising and affordable sanitation options. Community organises itself to go from house to house digging toilets for each household that needs assistance

Question 13

What is success of CLTS in Sierra Leone

Answer 13

Implementation gradually extended to involvement of NGOs and district health management teams working together to help communities throughout country. As of June 2009, about 750 communities involved and incidences of diarrhoea due to improved sanitation had decreased

Question 14

What is the limitation of CLTS in Sierra Leone

Answer 14

It works best in rural areas where population density is low and proved less successful in urban areas. This is due to ongoing migration and lack of space for toilets

Question 15

What are limitations communities face in managing disease

Answer 15

Extent of impact depends on how able communities are in leading and implementing strategies, may lack experience and know-how. May have limited resources to work with, especially with no help from government, NGOs or international organisations.

Question 16

Give an example of limited resources of communities

Answer 16

During the Malaria Control Programme in Kano State, Nigeria, community groups tried to conduct awareness campaigns to educate residents about malaria prevention. However, these groups lack the funds to purchase and distribute Insecticide-Treated Nets (ITNs) or to conduct widespread health education campaigns. Hence, their efforts may be limited within a small province or city.

Question 17

What is the role of governments in managing spread of disease

Answer 17

Can take precautionary measure to prevent outbreak of diseases or mitigation measures to reduce impact of disease after it has emerged in a country

Question 18

What are the strengths of governments in managing spread of disease

Answer 18

They can implement strategies that reach out to many people at same time, has impact at national level. Governments have resources to implement nation-wide programmes, and only government has authority to implement laws

Question 19

Give an example of how governments have authority

Answer 19

In January 2020, the Chinese government imposed a complete lockdown on Wuhan, the epicenter of the outbreak, and later on the entire Hubei province, affecting over 50 million people. All travel in and out of these areas was halted, and residents were required to stay indoors, which dramatically reduced virus transmission.

Question 20

Describe Singapore’s precautionary measure of providing measures against H1N1

Answer 20

Vaccinations are useful way to increase body’s immunity against certain diseases. In 2009, Singapore began providing vaccinations for population against H1N1 influenza virus before it emerged in country. More than 400 family clinics island-wide were stocked with H1N1 vaccines to ensure ready access to prompt treatment. Most cases of H1N1 infection in Singapore were mild, 18 deaths reported in 2009. Singapore in process of developing its own vaccine for H1N1 and in 2013 Singapore’s first H1N1 flu vaccine reached first phase of clinical trials

Question 21

What are the limitation of Singapore’s strategy of providing vaccinations against H1N1

Answer 21

Vaccinations take up to two weeks to take effect. Individuals may not choose to receive vaccinations and risk being infected with infected influenza virus
Waiting period for imported vaccines would take up to three months.

Question 22

What are limitations of government’s contributions to management of infectious diseases

Answer 22

Top-down approach may not garner support of the masses. Governments may not understand people’s needs at grassroots level. Government contributions are limited by their own country’s level of development, affecting availability of resources, level of technology and literacy rates

Question 23

Give an example of how government may not be trusted

Answer 23

On March 24, 2020, the Indian government announced a nationwide lockdown with only a few hours’ notice; the suddenness of the announcement left millions unprepared, especially daily wage workers and the urban poor. The harsh enforcement of lockdown measures, including arrests and fines for non-compliance, further eroded trust between the government and local communities.

Question 24

What is the role of NGOs

Answer 24

They are non-profit groups that may be organised at local, national or international levels. They voice out citizen concerns to governments, support and monitor policies, encourage political participation

Question 25

Describe the Frontline AIDs strategy

Answer 25

Its an innovative alliance of nationally based, independent, civil society organisations. The strategy increases access to HIV and health programmes, supports community-based organisations to be connected and supports effective elements of health systems, advocates for HIV, health and human rights

Question 26

What are the successes of the Frontline AIDs strategy

Answer 26

Individual countries will take up more ownership in implementing the strategy. There are measurable goals for the whole Alliance. Organisations that work with Frontline AIDs will use the strategy with their own national plans to shape their future strategies

Question 27

What are the limitations of Frontline AIDS

Answer 27

Success of strategy depends on the will of governments to better target resources and work with civil society in national HIV responses. Not all countries have funds to implement strategies. It depends on goodwill of other countries or international organisations to provide funds for them

Question 28

What are the limitations of NGOs contributions to the management of infectious diseases

Answer 28

Locally-based NGOs understand own people but not all NGOs have full understanding of local culture. NGOs do not have authority to mandate what needs to do or what is being done with provided resources. Some NGOs have limited resources, especially those at local level

Question 29

What is an example of lack of understanding of local culture for NGOs

Answer 29

During the 2014-2016 Ebola Outbreak, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) faced challenges in community engagement due to its lack of formal authority and local influence. Although MSF worked to build trust and engage with communities, it often needed to collaborate with local leaders and government officials to effectively communicate and implement public health measures.

Question 30

What is the role of international organisations

Answer 30

They are organisations made of different member states. They can coordinate efforts and responses across and between countries, important for pandemics. They can help low-income countries with resources to manage spread of infectious diseasses

Question 31

Give example of international organisations having great global impact

Answer 31

WHO’s Global Coordination efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic. WHO launched the “Solidarity Trial,” a global research effort to compare the effectiveness of different treatments for COVID-19. This trial involved over 30 countries and helped generate robust data on potential therapies.

Question 32

Describe the UNAIDS 2016-2021 strategy

Answer 32

Provides voluntary HIV testing services accessible for people at risk of HIV infection. Early infant diagnostic services accessible to all countries exposed to HIV and all children under 5 years living with HIV on treatment All adults, adolescents and children offered ART and linked to treatment services uoon diagnosis

Question 33

What are limitations of international organisations

Answer 33

May not have full understanding of local culture which limits success of strategies, may not consider cultural differences. May not have authority to mandate what countries need to do or what they will do with provided resources. Bank has limited control over how fund is used in healthcare once finances have been provided

Question 34

Give example of international organisations having limited authority with resources provided

Answer 34

WHO’s operations are largely dependent on funding from member states and other donors. During the 2014-2016 Ebola Outbreak, delays in securing sufficient funding hampered response. WHO could not compel countries to contribute resources; it could only appeal for voluntary funding, which affected the speed and scale of the response.