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Anatomy And Physiology > Digestive System > Flashcards

Digestive System Flashcards

1
Q

Prehension

A

Taking a hold of food/water into the oral cavity

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2
Q

Mastication

A

Mechanical breakdown of food and mixing it with saliva in the oral cavity

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3
Q

True or false:

When you swallow food, it is considered to be INSIDE the body

A

False

Good remains OUTSIDE of the body until it is absorbed

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4
Q

Carnivores

A

Eats meat and no fibres

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5
Q

How much fermentation does a carnivore have going on

A

Little to none

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6
Q

Who is the one true carnivore

A

The cat

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7
Q

Herbivore

A

Eats mostly plant matter

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8
Q

How much fermentation is required for a herbivore

A

A lot

The will either have a large cecum (horses) or a rumen

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9
Q

What is cellulose

A

The most abundant plant sugar

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10
Q

True or false

There are mammalian enzymes that can break down cellulose

A

False

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11
Q

What is needed to break down cellulose

A

Fermentation

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12
Q

Omnivores

A

Eats both plants and meat

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13
Q

How much fermentation is needed for omnivores

A

Some fermentation in an enlarged colon

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14
Q

True or false

Dogs are considered omnivores

A

True

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15
Q

Monogastric

A

Have a single true stomach

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16
Q

Ruminants

A

Have one true stomach and 3 forestomachs including a large rumen/fermentation chamber

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17
Q

Cecal or hindgut fermenters

A

Have a large cecum and sometimes a big large intestine for a fermentation chamber

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18
Q

Name the 3 salivary glands and where they are

A

Parotid: below the ear canal caudal to the mandible

Mandibular: medial to the bones of the mandible

Sublingual: below the base of the tongue

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19
Q

What enzymes are in saliva

A

Amylase
Lipase
Lysozyme

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20
Q

What does amylase do

A

Breaks down amylose/starch

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21
Q

True or false

Amylase is present in omnivores but not in dogs, carnivores and ruminants

A

True

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22
Q

What does lipase do

A

Breaks down lipids

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23
Q

What does lysozyme do? And what is it considered?

A

Considered a antibacterial enzyme
Breaks down bacteria
AIDS in cleaning the food

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24
Q

A Function of saliva in dogs

A

Evaporative cooling (panting)

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25
Q

What does saliva help to do in ruminants

A

High amounts of sodium bicarbonate and phosphate buffers (with a high pH) help neutralize rumen acids from fermentation

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26
Q

What can cause acidosis in ruminants

A

Large amounts of carbohydrate feeds result in an increase in the process of fermentation and the build up of acids in the rumen

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27
Q

True or false

Salivary fluid and buffers are recycled in ruminants

A

True

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28
Q

A row of teeth is called an

A

Arcade

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29
Q

A tooth is embedded in a socket, a socket is called an

A

Alveolus

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30
Q

The crown is the part of the tooth

A

Above the gums

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31
Q

The root is the part of the tooth

A

Below the gum in the alveolus

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32
Q

Internal structure of the tooth:
Enamel is the____
Dentin is the____
Pulp cavity is the___ and contains ___

A

Enamel is the outer surface of the tooth

Dentin is the majority of the tooth

The pulp cavity is the central cavity and contains blood vessels and nerves

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33
Q

The soft palate separates

A

The oropharynx(throat) and the nasopharynx

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34
Q

Two orientations of muscle in the esophagus

A

Longitudinal and circular

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35
Q

Explain Deglutition (swallowing)

A

Starts a voluntary action (tongue moves food to o the back of the throat)

Relaxation of the esophagus and closure of the larynx

Peristalsis in the esophagus by contraction of the longitudinal muscles on aboral side

Contraction of circular muscles on the oral side and relaxation of circular muscles on the aboral side

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36
Q

Aboral

A

Away from the mouth

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37
Q

Cardiac sphincter prevents what

A

Reflux of stomach contents into the esophagus

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38
Q

True or false

Horse can vomit

A

False

The cardiac sphincter prevents this

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39
Q

Myasthenia Gravis or megaesophagus

A

Interference with muscles function and tone in the esophagus and causes muscle tone loss and dilation of the esophagus

Food cannot move down the esophagus and is often regurgitated

Normally mistaken for vomiting

Makes animal more prone to pneumonia

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40
Q

Vomiting (emesis) is controlled where

A

A centre in the brainstem

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41
Q

Emetics

A

Drugs that Stimulate the brainstem to induce vomiting

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42
Q

Antiemetics

A

Drugs that prevent vomiting

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43
Q

Process of vomiting (emesis)

A

Pyloric sphincter relaxes

Reverse peristalsis moves food from SI to stomach

Relaxation of cardiac sphincter

Inspiratory movements and contraction of abdominal muscles result in vomiting

Closed epiglottis prevents aspiration and the soft palate directs food out of the mouth

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44
Q

Rumination

A

Masticated partially digested food gets regurgitated and chewed on again, swallowed and re-digested
Called “chewing a the cud”

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45
Q

Why do ruminants ruminate their food

A

Efficient fiber digestion: mixed with saliva and chewed again to increase surface area exposed to microbes

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46
Q

How long does each rumination cycle last

A

About 1 minutes between regurgitation and swallowing

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47
Q

Where is the reticulum in ruminants

A

Most cranial compartment

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48
Q

What appearance does the reticulum have

A

A honey comb appearance to increase surface area

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49
Q

Reticulorumen contractions

A

Coordinated contractions to move food to the rumen

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50
Q

The rumenoreticular fold

A

Separates the rumen from the reticulum

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51
Q

Where is the rumen in ruminants

A

Occupies the left half of the abdominal cavity

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52
Q

True or false

the rumen is the largest forestomach compartment

A

True

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53
Q

What appearance does the rumen have

A

Pile rug appearance

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54
Q

Function of the rumen

A

Site of fermentation digestion

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55
Q

What separates the rumen into different compartments

A

Rumenal pillars -long muscular folds

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56
Q

Compartmentalization in the rumen

A

Contractions that assist in mixing of rumen contents controlled by the vagus nerve (parasympathetic NS)

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57
Q

What affects compartmentalization in the rumen

A 
Distension of the rumen 
PH 
Presence of VFAs 
Consistency of contents 
And feedback from other areas
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58
Q

Eurctation

A

The expulsion of CO2 and methane gas from fermentation that accumulates in the rumen

Contractions of rumen and relaxation of the esophagus result in belching

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59
Q

Why is cellulose and pectin indigestible in monogastrics

A

Due to the fiber linkage of the molecules

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60
Q

Microbes convert saccharides into

A

Volatile fatty acids

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61
Q

3 most important VFAs in rumen

A

Propionic acid
Butyric acid
Acetic acid

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62
Q

VFAs are absorbed across the rumen wall and go to the liver for conversion to

A

Glucose (mostly propionic acid) to make adipose tissue or to be burnt for energy

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63
Q

True or false

Things are normally absorbed where they are created

A

True

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64
Q

Cellulase breaks down cellulose to _____, microbes convert this to _____, liver of ruminants converts VFAs back to _____

A

Glucose
Propionic acid
Glucose

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65
Q

Proteases break down protein into

A

Amino acids

66
Q

Amino acids are used to

A

Make proteins

Or converted to VFAs and ammonia

67
Q

Some ammonia is absorbed and ends up in the liver to be converted to___

68
Q

What happens to urea

A

Secreted back into the salivary glands and eventually the rumen to provide microbes with a nitrogen source

Or secreted in urine after the digestion process

69
Q

Why do farmers add chicken waste to cattle feed

A

To add urea/ammonia to aid in protein synthesis

70
Q

Microbes from fermentation sometimes slip into the small intestine as ingests moves, what happens to them

A

They provide an important source of protein for the ruminant when they get digested

71
Q

Where are vitamins B and K made

A

In the rumen

72
Q

Any alteration in balance of microbes, feed, pH and gas production can cause

A

Bloat
Acidosis
Death

73
Q

The omasum

A

The third chamber

74
Q

Appearance of the omasum

A

Large surface area due to large mucosal folds “many piles”

Looks like leaves or pages of a book

75
Q

Omasum has strong muscular walls for

A

Mechanical break down

76
Q

Absorptive function of the omasum

A

VFAs, water and bicarbonate

To prevent neutralization of the abomasal acid (a change in the acidity can inhibit function)

77
Q

The abomasum

A

The true stomach in ruminants similar to the stomach of a monogastrics

78
Q

A milk diet does not require fermentation so young nursing calves have underdeveloped ____ , ___and ___ and have a presence of a _____

A

Rumen, reticulum, and omasum

A reticular/esophageal groove

79
Q

What does the reticular groove do for nursing cattle

A

Allows milk to Bypass the rumen, reticulum and omasum into the abomasum

80
Q

5 parts of the monogastric stomach

A 
Cardia (cardiac sphincter)
Fundus
Body
Antrum 
Pylorus (pyloric sphincter)
81
Q

The cardia (cardiac sphincter)

A

The area around the opening of the esophagus into the stomach

82
Q

The fundus

A

Area that forms a distensible pouch that expands as food enters

83
Q

What allows the fundus to expand the way it can

A

The Rugae (folds) flatten out as it distends

84
Q

The body

A

Also distensible, middle portion of the stomach

85
Q

The antrum

A

Distal portion of the stomach that grinds food, regulates acid production, and produces mucus

86
Q

The pylorus

A

Muscular sphincter that regulates the movement of chyme into the SI

Prevents back flow from SI to the stomach

87
Q

The inside curve of the stomach is called

A

The lesser curvature of the stomach

88
Q

The outside curve of the stomach is called

A

The greater curvature of the stomach

89
Q

Pepsinogen is secreted by

A

Chief cells in response to gastric stimulation

90
Q

Pepsinogen is the precursor for

A

Pepsin

Made my cleaving Pepsinogen with HCL (in the stomach)

91
Q

Pepsin catalyses _____ into smaller amino acids called____

A

Protein

Peptides

92
Q

Pepsin is inactivated by the more ____ pH in the duodenum

93
Q

Mucus is a mixture of mucin, water and bicarbonate ions, what does this help with

A

Assists in mucus’ ability to neutralize stomach acid

94
Q

Mucus is important in the stomach, to protect it from

A

Autodigestion due to pH of 2-3

95
Q

Why must mucus be continuously secreted in the stomach? What can happen if it doesn’t?

A

Because it is broken down by HCL and can cause gastritis and ulcers

96
Q

Hydrogen and chloride ions (HCl) are secreted by

A

Parietal (oxyntic) cells as separate ions

97
Q

What does HCL do in the stomach

A

Sterilizes the food and protects GIT from infections and aids in denaturation of proteins

98
Q

Secretion of HCl is controlled by receptors on parietal cells for

A

Gastrin
Acetylcholine
Histamine
(Need all 3 receptors to be stimulated for optimal HCL release)

99
Q

When the pH of gastric contents drops below 3, gastrin is inhibited, what does this do to the release of HCl

A

Inhibits it

100
Q

Can inhibit the release of HCl by the use of Drugs that block the

A

Histamine receptor
Acetylcholine receptor
The proton pump

101
Q

Stomach Contractions stimulated by the parasympathetic nervous system

A

Relaxes the fundus and increases antrum and body contractions

Prepares the stomach to accept food

102
Q

Stomach contractions stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system

A

Decreases stomach motility and can result is gastric atony (decreased muscle tone)

103
Q

Stomach contractions stimulated by gastrin

A

Produced by G cells in the antrum in response to filling and peptides

Increases HCl production and Pepsinogen in the fundus

Causes muscular relaxation in the fundus to allow filling

104
Q

Muscle contractions stimulated by secretin

A

Produced in the duodenum in response to excess stomach acid in SI

Causes relaxation of the fundus

Inhibits peristalsis to delay movement of ingesta into the SI

105
Q

Stomach contractions stimulated by cholecystokinin (CCK)

A

Produced in response to fats and proteins in the duodenum

Inhibits gastric contractions and slows gastric emptying

106
Q

Carnivore stomachs empty within

A

A few hours

107
Q

Horse and pigs stomachs take about __ hours to empty

108
Q

Duodenum

A

First part of the SI, extends from the pylorus to the jejunum

109
Q

The duodenum receives 3 things

A

Ingesta from the stomach
Bile from the liver
Pancreatic secretions

110
Q

Jejunum and ileum are

A

Indistinguishable from each other

111
Q

The ileum connects to the colon of the large intestine by the

A

Ileocecal sphincter

112
Q

What 4 things increase surface area of the SI

A

Folded walls
Intestinal crypts (depressions)
Intestinal villi
Microvilli on the villi

113
Q

The microvilli cells have enzymes for digestion and ___ for absorption in/on the cell membrane

A

Carrier molecules

114
Q

All parts of the SI are divided into 3 major layers

A

The luminal mucosa with microvilli

An outer serosa which is continuous with the visceral peritoneum

115
Q

Segmental contractions in the SI

A

Mixing and churning of food

Increases exposure of food to the villi

Slow movement of ingesta through the GIT

more random than peristalsis and compartmentalization

116
Q

Amylase in carbohydrate digestion

A

May be present in saliva, always secreted by the pancreas into the duodenum

Converts starch to disaccharides

117
Q

Sucrase, Maltase, isomaltase, and lactase in carbohydrate digestion

A

Enzymes in the microvilli cell membrane

Convert disaccharides to monosaccharides

Proportion of these enzymes depend on diet, age and species

118
Q

True or false

Young animals often have a lot of lactase to digest milk, but may lose it as adults if not fed milk continuously

119
Q

Glucose is absorbed by using transport proteins on the cell membrane of the brush border by secondary active transport, explain

A

Na-K ATPase maintains a low sodium level inside of cells

Glucose and sodium are co-transported into the cell using the concentration gradient of sodium

Glucose leaves the cell for the blood by diffusion through the basement membrane

120
Q

Examples of proteases produced by the pancreas that further break down proteins in the small intestine

A

Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
Elastase
Carboxypeptidase

121
Q

The pancreatic proteases are secreted as inactive precursors and are activated in the lumen of the GIT, why?

A

To prevent autodigestion

122
Q

Luminal digestion of proteins yields

A

Free amino acids and small peptides

123
Q

Fat is digestion by

A

Emulsification

124
Q

Explain emulsification of fats

A

Fats are warmed and mixed in the antrum to change to an oil/liquid

Bile salts are added in the SI (secreted by the liver through the bile duct into duodenum)

The bile salts are bipolar, they bond to the fat with their hydrophobic head and hold onto water with their hydrophilic tail

125
Q

Emulsification makes fats into small droplets with large surface area, this allows

A

Fat soluble vitamins to attach to the fats

Pancreatic lipases to digest the fat

126
Q

Main dietary fat

A

Triglycerides (3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol)

127
Q

Triglycerides are hydrolyzed by lipase into free fatty acids and monoglycerides, what do the bile salts do?

A

With bile salts, these form small water soluble micelles that carry fat to the microvilli

Bile salts stay in the lumen and the free fatty acids and monoglycerides are reassembled into a triglyceride

These are excreted with protein as chylomicrons from the cell and transported in the lymphatics to the vena cava

128
Q

Sudden diet changes can result in incompletely digested food, leading to

A

Diarrhea

That’s why diet changes should be gradual

129
Q

Functions of the large intestine

A

Recover water and electrolytes

Store feces

Ferment fiber

130
Q

The cecum

A

A blind diverticulum (sac) at the ileocecal junction

131
Q

The cecum in carnivores, ruminants and hind gut fermenters

A

Carnivores: poorly developed

Ruminants: moderately sized

Hindgut fermenters: large and highly developed

132
Q

3 portions of the colon

A

Ascending: most cranial

Transverse: courses from right to left

Descending: connects to the rectum

133
Q

The colon has many mucus secreting glands to___ and uses ____ to control movement through it

A

Lubricate feces

Peristalsis and segmental contractions

134
Q

The horse’s cecum and large colon

A

Where fermentation takes place (like the reticulum and rumen in a cow)

Ascending colon is usually called the large colon

Consists of 4 large banks stacked in pairs running cranially and caudally along the sides of the abdomen

135
Q

The cecum and large colon in a horse are divided into sacculations called

136
Q

The longitudinal muscles that form prominent bands in the cecum and large colon of a horse are called

137
Q

In ruminants the ascending colon is called the spiral colon, why?

A

It is long and doubles into a spiral that runs in the mesentery supporting the small intestine

138
Q

The difference between the layers of the large intestine and the small intestine are that the mucosa is

A

Not as extensively folded, and contains more mucous cells

139
Q

Differences in fermentation from ruminants in hind gut fermenters:

A

Much of starch and protein digested and absorbed in the small intestine of hindgut fermenters (in the rumen for ruminants)

Microbial protein cannot be absorbed

Bicarbonate secreted directly to cecum and colon wall into the lumen

140
Q

The rectum

A

Terminal portion of the colon which continues into the pelvic cavity

Stores feces prior to defecation

Has many mucus secreting glands for lubrication

Has sensory receptors for stretch -stimulates defecation response

141
Q

The anus has an internal and external muscular sphincter to allow controlled passage of feces. Explain the nervous control for both

A

Internal sphincter:
Parasympathetic: causes relaxation
Sympathetic: causes constriction

External sphincter:
Voluntary control

142
Q

What happens when the internal sphincter relaxes and allows fecal contents to contact the anal mucosa

A

Stimulates conscious need to defecate

143
Q

What happens when muscles and nerve supply in the anus/rectum are damaged by perianal surgery, trauma and perianal tumours?

A

Can cause fecal incontinence (loss of control of defecation)

144
Q

Exocrine functions of the pancreas for digestion

A

Secretion of proteases, amylase and lipase from acinar cells into the duodenum

Secretes bicarbonate into the duodenum to neutralize stomach acid

145
Q

Second largest organ in the body

146
Q

Hepatic portal system

A

System of veins that Drains the intestine and deliver blood to the liver to be filtered

147
Q

What does the liver do to filter toxins

A

Has phagocytize cells in the hepatic sinusoids (blood filled cavities) to filter and remove toxins and other substances from the blood

148
Q

What does the liver absorb

A

Trace Minerals
Fat soluble vitamins (also stores them)
Glucose (stored as glycogen)

149
Q

The liver makes bile which contains bile acids/salts, cholesterol and bilirubin, it is collected in canaliculi, and drained into bile ducts, is stored in the gallbladder and can lead to the pancreatic duct into the duodenum. The gallbladder releases bile in response to what

A

Cholecystokinin which is released in response to fats and proteins therefore providing the bile for fat emulsification

150
Q

How are bile salts reabsorbed

A

Through the hepatic portal system, they are removed from the blood and recycled by the liver to make more

151
Q

The liver makes albumin, what is that

A

A blood protein that maintains blood oncotic pressure

152
Q

Why do starving kids have pot bellies

A

Due to protein deficiencies that cause ascites

153
Q

How is the liver important in glucose metabolism? What processes does it use?

A

Glycogenesis: makes glycogen from sugars to store in liver

Glycogenolysis: breaks down glycogen to maintain blood glucose

Gluconeogenesis: makes glucose from non carbohydrate substances such as amino acids (ruminants and true carnivores) or propionate (VFA) in herbivores

154
Q

True or false

Horses have gallbladders

155
Q

Cleft lip

A

Due to a disturbance of the process making the jaws and face during development

156
Q

Cleft palate

A

Defect may involve the soft palate alone or extend rostrallu to the maxillary bones and lips

157
Q

Salivary Mucocele

A

An excessive accumulation of saliva in or around the gland due to traumas or inflammation that occluded the duct/gland

158
Q

Megaesophagus

A

Esophagus dilates proximal to a constriction

Congenital cause: persistent aortic arch

159
Q

Choke

A

Obstruction in the esophagus of horses due to dry feed

160
Q

Abdominal hernia

A

Protrusion of abdominal contents through an opening in the wall

Umbilical, inguinal and scrotal

161
Q

GVD

A

gastric torsion or volvulus
Large dee chest animals
Exercise after a heavy meal
Distension due to gas

Anatomy And Physiology (8 decks)

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