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Anatomy And Physiology > Blood And Lymphatics > Flashcards

Blood And Lymphatics Flashcards

1
Q

True or false

Blood is a type of connective tissue

A

True

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2
Q

Give examples of bloods transportation functions

A

Hemoglobin in RBCs carry oxygen

Nutrients and other compounds are carried dissolved in plasma

Waste removal (CO2 and urea) carried to the lungs, liver and kidneys

Transporting hormones to target organs

carries WBCs to sites of infection

Carries platelets to locations of blood vessel damage

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3
Q

Give examples of regulatory functions of blood

A

Body temperature

Tissue fluid content (reservoir for fluids during over hydration and dehydration)

pH (acidic waste products are buffered with bicarbonate and phosphate buffers)

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4
Q

What is the normal pH range of blood

A

7.4 +/- 0.05

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5
Q

Give examples of defence functions of blood

A

WBCs provide immunity functions (ex. Phagocytosis)

Clotting factors and platelets protect against blood loss

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6
Q

Blood is composed of cells suspended in plasma, these cells include

A

Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Leukocytes (WBCs)
Platelets (cell fragments)

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7
Q

What is plasma, what is it composed of

A

Clear fluid in which cells are suspended

Has clotting factors such as fibrinogen

Clotting factors + serum

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8
Q

If blood is clotted, or if blood has been collected in a red top tube, what fluid portion is left

A

Serum -NO clotting factors (used in clot)

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9
Q

If blood is spun down, or collected in a tube with anticoagulant (Heparin or EDTA) what fluid portion is left

A

Plasma -HAS clotting factors

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10
Q

Define peripheral blood

A

Blood in blood vessels around the body

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11
Q

Define whole blood

A

Blood as it is drawn from a blood vessel

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12
Q

What can you estimate blood volume based on, what is the rule of thumb?

A

Lean body weight

Rule of thumb, 6-8% of lean body weight is blood volume (varies with fitness/muscling)

1kg=1000ml

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13
Q

True or false

Fit, muscular or hyper animals have a greater volume of blood

A

True

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14
Q

In general a >___% of total volume of blood loss is life threatening

A

> 30%

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15
Q

During rest, the need for circulating blood is lower, so the body stores RBCs in the

A

Spleen

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16
Q

What stimulates the spleen to release blood into circulation

A

Exercise and hemorrhage causes the spleen to contract

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17
Q

Usually, 45-78% of a blood sample is

A

Plasma

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18
Q

How much plasma is in a blood sample depends on

A

Species
Exercise
Hydration

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19
Q

Main component of plasma is

A

Water (93%)

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20
Q

The other 7% of plasma is composed of

A

Dissolved substances

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21
Q

What are some of the dissolved substances found in plasma

A

Proteins (70%)

Gases

Electrolytes

Others

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22
Q

Describe the proteins found in plasma

A

Primarily albumin, globulins and clotting factors such as fibrinogen and prothrombin

All proteins create much of the oncotic pressure important in maintaining vascular volume

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23
Q

What is oncotic pressure

A

Pressure due to large molecules which cannot move out of the vessels so water is drawn into the vessels (albumin is the main contributor)

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24
Q

What is a osmotic pressure

A

Pressure that draws water into an area with higher concentration of solutes (these solutes can move in and out of membranes)

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25
Q

True or false

The proteins in blood are nutritional proteins

A

FALSE

they are functional proteins

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26
Q

What are some of the gases found in blood? Which is the most abundant but has no function?

A

Oxygen

Carbon dioxide

Nitrogen (most abundant/no function)

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27
Q

Due to hemoglobin, O2 has a ____ concentration in the body than in the air

A

Higher

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28
Q

What are some electrolytes found in blood

A

Sodium

Potassium

Calcium

Magnesium

Chloride

Bicarbonate buffers

Phosphate buffers

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29
Q

True or false

Electrolytes conduct an electrical charge in water

A

True

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30
Q

What are some other things found in blood

A

Nutrients: glucose, lipids

Wastes: urea, creatinine, bilirubin

Hormones

Medications/drugs

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31
Q

Describe the normal appearance of plasma

A

Clear to pale yellow

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32
Q

What does white, cloudy appearance of plasma indicate

A

High lipid content, potentially from a recent fatty meal or disease

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33
Q

What does a yellow-orange color of plasma indicate

A

Indicates the presence of bilirubin (a breakdown product of hemoglobin)

Hemolytic anemia or liver disease can show this (become icteric)

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34
Q

Why is it normal for herbivores to have a pale yellow hue in their plasma

A

Due to plant carotenoids

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35
Q

When would it be normal to see a moderately yellow color in plasma in horses

A

During fasting due to increased bilirubin

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36
Q

Define hematopoiesis

A

Production of blood cells

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37
Q

Blood production is continuous due to

A

Continuous loss, use and replacement

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38
Q

Sites of hematopoiesis in the fetus

A

Liver and spleen

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39
Q

Sites of hematopoiesis in the newborn

A

Red bone marrow

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40
Q

Sites of hematopoiesis in older animals

A

Most red bone marrow in medullary cavities is replaced by yellow bone marrow (mostly fat) with age, so hematopoiesis continues in ends of long bones and in flat bones

Very little production continues in liver and spleen

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41
Q

Blood cells all differentiate from a common cell type called the ______. What is it?

A

Pluripotent stem cell (PPSC)

A primitive/stem cell that can develop into whatever the body needs

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42
Q

Describe stimulation of pluripotent stem cells

A

Various stimuli trigger PPSC to develop into what type of blood cell is needed

Most are hormonal triggers

If they are not stimulated by anything they will not develop

Ex. Erythropoietin from the kidneys stimulate erythrocytes to form

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43
Q

Cytology of bone marrow shows populations of cells in various stages of development, why is this?

What do the numbers of each cell depend on?

What can this be used for?

A

Because most blood cell types complete development within bone marrow

Depends on the cell type and the stimuli the bone marrow received to produce it

Used to diagnose disease

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44
Q

What is the exception to the fact that most blood cell types complete development in bone marrow

A

Lymphocytes - these mature in lymphatic tissue (thymus, lymph nodes, spleen)

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45
Q

What would hemorrhage stimulate the release of? Infection?

A

Hemorrhage: RBCs

Infection: neutrophils

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46
Q

If there is a very serious and sudden problem, _____ cells may be released in attempt to get as much of the cell type into circulation as possible, even though they may not be as effective

A

Immature cells

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47
Q

Describe erythrocytes

A

Biconcave discs with no nucleus or mitochondria

Contain hemoglobin to carry oxygen to tissues (and CO2 to lungs)

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48
Q

Define erythropoiesis

A

The production of erythrocytes (RBCs) from the PPSC in bone marrow

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49
Q

Where does erythropoiesis occur? What is it stimulated by

A

In bone marrow, stimulated by erythropoietin released by the kidneys in response to low oxygen levels in Blood

Initiates PPSC differentiation into RBCs

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50
Q

Synthesis of new RBCs requires

A

Iron
Folic acid
Vitamin B12

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51
Q

Since RBCs do not have mitochondria, where do they receive their energy?

A

Rely on plasma glucose for energy

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52
Q

Describe what must be done in order to get a reliable blood glucose level test?

A

Since RBCs use glucose for energy, when a blood sample is taken the serum needs to be separated from the blood ASAP to give a accurate reading of glucose

Can result in a incorrect reading of low glucose and high potassium

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53
Q

Describe hemoglobin

A

A protein

Each molecule contains 1 globin attached to 4 heme molecules

Each heme portion contains an iron ion and an bind to an O2 molecule

Almost all oxygen in blood is bound to hemoglobin

54
Q

Describe the difference in fetal hemoglobin

A

Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for O2 than normal adult hemoglobin and can steal O2 from mother through the placenta

55
Q

What is oxyhemoglobin

A

Hemoglobin that is carrying O2 attached to each iron molecule and appears bright red

56
Q

What is deoxyhemoglobin

A

Hemoglobin with no bound O2 (empty) and appears dark red to purple

57
Q

What is carboxyhemoglobin

A

During carbon monoxide poisoning, carbon monoxide may bind to hemoglobin

This appears cherry red

58
Q

Ability of hemoglobin to carry and hold O2 depends on

A

pH

Temperature

Concentrations of O2 and CO2 in air and blood

59
Q

What are the 3 ways in which blood carries CO2

A

Dissolved in plasma

Some transported on another site on hemoglobin

Majority is transported by bicarbonate

60
Q

Why are RBCs important in bicarbonate formation

A

Because RBCs contain an enzyme that catalyses formation of carbonic acid.

CO2 diffuses into RBC where the enzyme catalyses the combination of CO2 with water into carbonic acid which then dissociates into hydrogen ions and bicarbonate

61
Q

What is the equation that represents carbonic acid formation and dissociation that occurs in tissues and lungs?

in which direction does the equation run in the tissues? The lungs?

A

H2O+CO2<> H2CO3<>H+HCO3

> in tissues

< in lungs

62
Q

How long is a RBC’s life span? What does it depend on?

A

Depending on species, it is typically several months long

63
Q

As RBCs become older, they become

A

Smaller, rounder and less flexible and are more easily damaged

64
Q

Billions of RBCs may be destroyed and replaced from bone marrow, how are the majority removed?

A

Extravascular hemolysis (eaten my macrophages) occurring mainly in the spleen and liver

65
Q

How are the components of RBCS recycled (amino acids, iron, heme)

A

Amino acids are used to make proteins in the liver

Irons is transferred via plasma protein transferrin and used to make more RBCs in the bone marrow

Heme is broken down to biliverdin (green) then broken down to bilirubin (yellow) and carried by albumin to the liver where it is combined with glucuronic acid to make it water soluble and is then secreted as bile pigment (yellow) (some is reabsorbed and excreted in urine or feces -responsible for color of stool and urine)

66
Q

How are the minority of RBCs removed?

A

Intravascular hemolysis

RBC destruction within blood vessels due to mechanical stresses and weakening due to age

67
Q

Describe what happens to contents after intravascular hemolysis

A

Contents are released into plasma

hemoglobin is picked up by transport protein called haptoglobin and taken to macrophages in the liver for break down seen with extravascular hemolysis

68
Q

What happens if hemolysis is excessive and all the haptoglobin used in the intravascular hemolysis process is filled

A

Hemoglobin will remain free in plasma (hemoglobinemia) and will be eliminated by the kidneys (hemoglobinuria)

69
Q

Hemoglobinemia appears as

A

Pink or red plasma

70
Q

Hemoglobinuria appears as

A

Pink or red urine

71
Q

True or false

Hemoglobinemia and hemoglobinuria are both normal findings

A

True

72
Q

What is anemia

A

A condition that decreases the ability of the blood to carry oxygen caused by decreased numbers of RBCs

Can be loss due to hemorrhage, parasitism, increased hemolysis or decreased RBC production (bone marrow depression) Often due to chronic disease or iron deficiency

73
Q

What is polycythemia

A

A primary disease causing An increased number of RBCs

Relative polycythemia, fluid loss results in RBCs being more concentrated but the total number is unchanged

In both cases, it increases viscosity of blood which can cause the heart to work harder

74
Q

Describe PCV and hematocrit results with polycythemia

A

Values are increased

Described as hemoconcentrated

75
Q

What do hematocrit tube results determine

A

Calculates volume occupied by RBCs from their number and shape

76
Q

Describe thrombocytes (platelets)

A

Fragments of cells specialized to assist in blood clotting

Small and irregularly shaped

Do not have a nucleus in mammals

Break off from large multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes) in bone marrow

Involved in Hemostasis (clotting)

77
Q

Process of platelet production is called ___, it is when PPSC differentiate into

A

Thrombopoiesis

PPSC differentiate into megakaryocytes

78
Q

What are the 3 specific functions in clotting that platelets are responsible for

A

Maintaining vascular integrity

Platelet plug formation

Play a part in fibrin formation to stabilize hemostatic plug

79
Q

Describe how platelet me maintain vascular integrity

A

Platelets attach to epithelium and release endothelial growth factors to keep endothelium healthy

80
Q

Decreased platelet numbers result in

A

Leaky capillaries which lead to petechia as RBCs move out through the endothelium into the tissues

81
Q

Describe platelet plug formation

A

Platelet plugs seal small holes

Endothelial damage initiates platelet adhesion to exposed connective tissue and to each other

After adhesion the platelet changes shape to form pseudopods

These intertwine to form a strong plug

This is called platelet aggregation

82
Q

How do platelets play a part in fibrin formation in order to stabilize the hemostatic plug

A

As platelets squeeze together, they release 13 clotting factors, activation of one clotting factor catalyses the next

Prothrombin turns into thrombin and forms on the surface of the platelet aggregation (cluster) which causes the conversion of plasma protein fibrinogen to the insoluble fibrin, which forms strands to bind the clot together

83
Q

What does fibrin do

A

Fibrin contracts at the end of the process to assist in pulling the wound edges together

Provides scaffolding for the repair of damaged vessel walls and for the granulation tissue

84
Q

Give a brief summary of the clotting process

A

Vascular spasm (doesn’t last long and only effective in small vessels) which allows short period of plug formation

Platelet plug formation activated by collagen (platelets become sticky when exposed to connective tissue)

Blood coagulation (conversion of plasma into a solid gel composed of a mass of fibrin fibers)

85
Q

What is thrombophlebitis

A

When a damage or infected blood vessels become inflamed and blood clots on their inner surface

86
Q

What is embolism

A

If a clot dislodges and travels through circulation which can potentially block an artery

Can be very serious in the brain

87
Q

The clotting process of dependent on the process of

A

Calcium

88
Q

If an animal is hypocalcemic, how will the animal most likely die, due to damage of the nervous or muscular system or through lack of clotting

A

Nervous and muscular systems are first affected and the animal will die before clotting is affected

89
Q

Purple top tube contains ___ which binds calcium and prevents clotting

A

EDTA

90
Q

Green top tubes contain ____ which inactivated several blood clotting enzymes

A

Heparin

91
Q

Describe what happens with rodenticide poisoning

A

Clotting requires Vit K for synthesis of clotting factors.

Coumarin/Coumarol type of rodenticide block the action of Vit K and the pest does from blood loss

Animals can be treated by giving high doses of Vit K

May contain warfarin (diccoumarol) which blocks Vit K

92
Q

Describe leukocytes

A

Mobile defenders against infection and foreign invaders

Formed from PPSC in bone marrow -called leukopoiesis

Some develop completely in bone marrow, others develop elsewhere such as the spleen or lymph nodes

93
Q

Pus is an accumulation of (purulent)

A

Leukocytes

94
Q

What are the 5 types of leukocytes

A 
Monocytes
Lymphocytes 
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
95
Q

What are the 3 different classifications of leukocytes

A

Type of defence they perform

Shape of nucleus

Presence or absence of cytoplasmic granules

96
Q

Describe the types of defences leukocytes have

A

Leukocytes are either phagocytic or not

Phagocytosis: ingestion of foreign particles/bacteria

Includes: neutrophils and monocytes are professionals (other may have minor roles in phagocytosis)

97
Q

Describe the shapes of nuclei of leukocytes

A

Mononuclear: single round nucleus
Includes: lymphocytes

Polymorphonuclear: multilobed, segmented nucleus
Includes: neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils

Pleomorphic: varying shapes without segmentation
Includes: monocytes

98
Q

which leukocytes are agranular

A

Monocytes and lymphocytes

99
Q

Excess of either or both monocytes and leukocytes is associated with

A

Chronic disease

100
Q

What leukocytes are granulocytes? How do they stain?

A

Neutrophils: pale purple stain (not intense)

Basophils: have very dark blue staining granules (pick up basic dye)

Eosinophils: red staining granules (pick up acidic stain)

101
Q

Describe neutrophils

AKA: PMN, Neuts, segs, band cells

A

Granulocyte

Most common WBC in horses, dogs and cats

Made in bone marrow in response to infection

Granules stain lightly (why they are called neutral)

Nucleus is segmented (polymorphonuclear) typically with 2-5 lobes

Immature neutrophils have a horseshoe shape nucleus called a band cell

Will see many neutrophils with severe infection

102
Q

What are the functions of neutrophils

A

Professional phagocytes (mainly small bacteria and debris)

Contain lysosomes (granules) that destroy engulfed material and organisms

Found in all tissues but Mainly in lung and intestinal tissue (constantly exposed to microorganisms)

103
Q

Describe how neutrophils respond to microorganisms

A

Very quickly, can be found in Hugh numbers during infection or low numbers if the infection overwhelms them

Neutrophils typically leave circulation within 10 hours through Diapedesis

Attracted to areas of infection by chemicals released during inflammation (this is called chemotaxis)

At the site, neutrophils phagocytize invaders either directly or after they have been covered in antibodies to help identify them

Neutrophils use hydrogen peroxide in their lysosomes to help destroy microorganisms

104
Q

When neutrophils are aged or destroyed, they are phagocytize by

A

Macrophages

105
Q

How can you tell neutrophils are old?

A

Hypersegmentation

Nucleus becomes more segmented

This can happen in a blood collection tube (why it is important to make a smear shortly after collecting blood)

106
Q

Describe eosinophils

A

Polymorphonuclear: segmented usually with 2 lobes

Granulocyte: Named for red staining granules. Granules can vary depending on species, in horses they are very large and round and bright staining

Make up 5% or less of total WBC count

Function: important in allergies and defence against parasites

Generally found in large numbers in skin, lungs and small intestine

107
Q

Describe basophils

A

Granulocyte

Named for granule’s affinity for the basic dye which stains granules very dark blue (may be washed out and cannot see)

Polymorphonuclear: 2-3 segmented lobes

Rarest WBC: 1% or less

Function: granules contain histamine and heparin (anticoagulants) to help initiate inflammation and allergic reaction and maintain blood flow in damaged areas (histamine)

108
Q

Describe monocytes

A

Makes up about 5% of circulating WBCs

Pleomorphic: may be round to horseshoe shaped -not segmented

Agranulocyte

Largest WBC

Cytoplasms is blue-grey staining

Vacuoles may be present: may look like
Granules but they are white

Migrate into tissues from blood and become macrophages

109
Q

Functions of monocytes

A

Primary phagocytes

Most of their functions occur in the liver, spleen, lung and lymph nodes

Act as filters to remove microorganisms, debris and old blood cells

Some are fixed and stay in one location, others are wandering and move throughout tissue to increase inflammation

110
Q

Describe lymphocytes

A

Mononuclear: round or oval (no segmentation

Agranulocyte

Major WBC in ruminants and pigs

No phagocytic abilities

Function: to make antibodies (1 type) or kills diseased cells (other 2 types)

Primarily in lymphoid tissue (spleen/thymus/lymph nodes)

Constantly recirculate between tissue and blood

Formation: arise from PPSC in bone marrow and then move to lymphoid tissue to mature

Large ones: more blue cytoplasms and are often younger

Smaller: little cytoplasm visible

111
Q

What does the lymphatic system consist of

A

Bone, lymph vessels and nodes, spleen, thymus, and lymphoid tissue

Vessels, ducts and lymph tissue

Lymphatic tissue is scattered throughout the body as lymph nodes, the spleen, thymus, tonsils and gut associated lymph tissue

112
Q

Lymphatic vessels ____ the routes of veins

A

Parallel

They carry excess tissue fluid called lymph to the thoracic region where it empties into the vena cava near the heart

113
Q

What are the 3 major functions of the lymphatic system

A

Return of extracellular fluid to blood

Filtration and defence against infection

Protein and lipid transportation (big molecules) since these molecules are too big to enter circulation they get carried in the lymphatic system

114
Q

Describe lymph formation

A

Lymph starts as excess fluid that is not picked up by blood vessels. This is because blood pressure forcing fluid out of the vessels is stronger that the osmotic/oncotic pressure pulling fluid back in. Results in an accumulation of fluid in the tissues

lymph capillaries within the tissue pick up the excess fluid and join to form larger and larger vessels.

These larger vessels terminate in the thoracic duct that empties into the vena cava

The lymph vessels have valves to prevent back flow

As lymph moved toward the vena cava, lymph passes through lymph nodes which filter the lymph (one of the body’s defence mechanisms)

115
Q

Describe lymph nodes

A

Kidney shaped and scattered throughout the body

Contain lymphocytes, macrophages and plasma cells

Lymphatic vessels entering the lymph node is deemed Afferent and those exiting are deemed Efferent

Each lymph nodes receives vessels from a specific region of the body (useful In Localizing pathology)

Condition of lymph nodes reflect health of that area -infections in the area cause lymph node to increase in size

116
Q

If the first lymph node is unable to filter out/stop the infection, where does it go

A

The infection will pass to the next lymph node and it will respond as well

117
Q

Why are lymph nodes clinically important

A

Significant enlargement in response to pathogens are important indicators of infection

Cancer cells and infections can metastasize throughout the body via the lymphatic system

Pathologists examine lymph ones to determine if cancer is spreading

Meat inspectors study lymph system to determine if parts of the carcass can be eaten or not

118
Q

What are hemal nodes

A

Small dark red or black structures found in cattle and sheep

These filter blood instead of lump and are connected to the vascular system instead of the lymphatic system

Located near regular lymph nodes

Can be mistaken for lymph nodes that have taken up blood Following a local hemorrhage

119
Q

Carnivores and ruminants typically have ____ lymph nodes at each side

A

1-2

120
Q

Porcine and equine normally have ___ lymph nodes per site

A

Many

121
Q

How many lymph nodes are in equine, bovine and canine?

A

Equine: 8000

Bovine: 300

Canine: 60

122
Q

What is the thymus

A

Lymphoid organ located in the cranial thoracic region lying on each side of the trachea

Very large in young animals and regress as the animal ages This is because young animals are still developing their immune system

The thymus is important for maturation of T cells , as the animal ages their immune system because fully functional so they do not need the high production of T-lymphocytes

123
Q

What is the spleen

A

An organ attached to the stomach and associated with both circulatory and immune systems

124
Q

What are the functions of the spleen

A

Storage area for blood

Part of reticuloendothelial (macrophage) system

Phagocytize fragile worn out RBCs

Removes foreign material from circulating tissue fluids (lymph and plasma)

125
Q

What is the white and red pulp in the spleen

A

White pulp: localized areas of lymphoid tissue in the spleen

Red pulp: blood vessels and sinuses and associated tissue macrophages in the spleen

Serves in:
Blood storage

Filtration by tissue macrophages

Removal of old blood cells by macrophages

126
Q

What happens if the body loses the spleen

A

The body can survive because other lymphoid tissue will pick up the white pulp functions and other tissue macrophages will pick up red pulp functions

May cause some immunosuppression

127
Q

Define Splenectomy

A

Removal of the spleen

128
Q

What are the tonsils

A

Found in all regions of the body (not just throat)

Are the peripheral lymphoid tissue where lymphocytes live

129
Q

How do tonsils differ from lymph nodes

A

Tonsils are close to moist epithelial surfaces (mucosa) and are found at the beginning of the lymph drainage system not along the vessels

130
Q

What is the Gut Associated Lymph Tissue (GALT)

A

Lymphoid tissue lining the intestines and makes up over 25% of the intestinal mucosa and Sub-mucosa

Anatomy And Physiology (8 decks)

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