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BIO 222 > DIgestion & Reproductive System > Flashcards

DIgestion & Reproductive System Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the function of the digestive system

A

to break down food into nutrients, absorb nutrients into the blood for use by cells of the body, and eliminate waste

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2
Q

what is chemical digestion?

A

breakdown of food by enzymes into nutrients

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3
Q

what is mechanical digestion?

A

physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces

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4
Q

what is involved in ingestion?

A

mastication into bolus (mastication means chewing, so this is putting something into your mouth and chewing, bolus - ball like mixture of saliva and food)

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5
Q

what does digestion start with?

A

ingestion

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6
Q

what is the next step in digestion?

A

propulsion

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7
Q

what are the two things that happen in propulsion?

A

deglutition and peristalsis

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8
Q

deglutition

A

swallowing & is a voluntary action

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9
Q

peristalsis

A

the smooth muscles in the walls of the digestive organs take turns contracting and relaxing to squeeze the bolus through the lumen, (the cavity of the digestive tract) from the esophagus to the stomach

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10
Q

what is the next thing to happen in digestion?

A

mixing in the stomach

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11
Q

what is mixing? and what is its process?

A

-mixing is the formation of chyme.
- when the food enters the stomach, the stomach glands produce gastric juices (acid) that mix with the bolus and form a semi-thick semi-solid partially digested ball of food called chyme that moves from the stomach to the first part of the small intestine

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12
Q

what are the parts of the small intestine in order?

A

duodenum, jejunum and ileum

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13
Q

what is the next step in the digestive process?

A

secretion of enzymes

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14
Q

what is the next step of the digestive process?

A

absorption

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15
Q

where does absorption happen? what happens?

A

*from the lumen of the intestines through the intestinal epithelium to the bloodstream
* The small intestine absorbs all the water, vitamins, and minerals of the digested food which are then absorbed into the bloodstream where it is carried to other parts of the body to be used or stored

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16
Q

Egestion

A

eliminating the undigested food from the body through the anus (pooping)

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17
Q

what are all the steps of the digestive system?

A
  1. ingestion
  2. propulsion
  3. mixing in the stomach
  4. secretion of enzymes
  5. absorption
  6. egestion
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18
Q

what are the organs involved in digestion?

A
  1. mouth
  2. esophagus
  3. the stomach
  4. the small intestine
  5. the large intestine
  6. liver
  7. pancreas
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19
Q

what happens in the mouth?

A
  1. the teeth do mechanical digestion of food into bolus
  2. the salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual) secrete:
    - salivary amylase
    -mucins
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20
Q

what do the salivary gands secrete

A

salivary amylase and mucins

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21
Q

salivary amylase

A

enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates (specifically large starch macromolecules into small simple)
* this enzyme is important because it is the start of chemical digestion

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22
Q

mucins

A

acts as lubricants and buffers
* mucins are glycoproteins that form a protective layer in the oral cavity (mouth) and act as lubricant for the food and protect the mouth from strong acids and invading organisms

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23
Q

stomach

A
  1. smooth muscle contractions for mixing (this is apart of mechanical digestion)
  2. secretion of enzymes ( this is apart of chemical digestion)
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24
Q

what happens during the smooth muscle contraction of the stomach

A
  • the food remains in the stomach for 3-4 hours
  • No nutrients are absorbed in the stomach
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25
Q

what can be absorbed in the stomach?

A

some medicines and alcohol

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26
Q

what glands are involved during secretion of enzymes ( to form chyme)?

A

1.Gastric glands- located in the gastric pits of the stomach walls
2. Pyloric glands

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27
Q

what does it mean that oral medications are enterically coated?

A

the medication is coated in a polymer barrier that resists the gastric acids of the stomach and slows the dissolvent and absorption of the medicine

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28
Q

what type of cells are in the gastric glands?

A
  1. parietal cells and chief cells
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29
Q

parietal cells

A

cells in the gastric glands that produce HCl (hydrochloric acid ) and intrinsic factor ( for the absorption of vitamin b 12)

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30
Q

what does HCL reduce pH to ?

A

1.5 - 2

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31
Q

what does intrinsic factor do?

A

for the absorption of vitamin b 12

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32
Q

what types of glands are gastric glands and what do they do?

A

gastric glands are exocrine glands that secrete gastric juice into the stomach

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33
Q

chief cells

A

produce pepsinogen

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34
Q

what is pepsinogen converted into and by what?

A

pepsinogen is converted into pepsin by hydrochloric acid

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35
Q

what does pepsin do?

A

pepsin denatures (breaks down) proteins

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36
Q

pyloric glands

A

contain G cells and D cells

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37
Q

G cells

A

produce gastrin
* gastrin:
- stimulates the chief and parietal cells (which then stimulates the production of HCL, intrinsic factor, and pepsinogen which then become pepsin)
-stimulates the muscle contractions (also known as mixing)

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38
Q

D cells

A
  • produce somatostatin
  • somatostatin inhibits gastrin when food is not present in the stomach
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39
Q

what are the phases of stomach activity

A
  1. cephalic stage
  2. gastric phase
  3. intestinal phase
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40
Q

what happens during the cephalic stage?

A
  • the medulla oblongata is stimulated by the smell, sight, taste, or thought of food
    -parasympathetic (rest and digest) is activated ( this helps move food through the intestines)
  • The parietal, chief, and g cells are stimulated
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41
Q

what happens during the gastric phase?

A

-stomach distention (stomach stretching/stomach filled with food) stimulates enteric reflexes (mixing:)
- continued secretion of gastric enzymes

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42
Q

what happens during the intestinal phase?

A

duodenal secretions inhibit the gastric glands

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43
Q

what is the first part of the small intestine?

A

the dueodenum

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44
Q

what is the first thing to happen in the duodenum?

A

the chyme leaves the stomach

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45
Q

the chyme leaves through what and enters which part of the small intestine?

A

leaves through the pyloric sphincter and enters through the duodenum

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46
Q

what happens after this

A

pancreatic juice and bile enter the small intestine

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47
Q

where do pancreatic juice and bile enter the small intestine from ?

A

duodenal ampulla (also known as the ampulla of vator) - this is where the pancreatic duct and common bile duct meet

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48
Q

mucins and lubricants in the duodenum protect cells from what?

A

acidic chyme

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49
Q

what raises the pH in the dueodenum? what does it raise it to?

A

buffers raise the pH and it raises it to 7-8

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50
Q

plicae

A

the circular folds in the duodenum

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51
Q

villi

A

line the small intestine & provide cellular extension of blood capillaries and increase surface area

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52
Q

what does Villi do? how does it do this?

A

absorb the nutrients in the chyme and the product of digestion. It does this by diffusion and active transport

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53
Q

microvilli

A

smaller cellular extension

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54
Q

brush border

A

layer of microvilli that increases the surface area in the small intestine

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55
Q

what are the different cell types in the duodenum?

A

-goblet cells
-paneth’s cells
-absorptive cells
-enteroendocrine cells (s cells, cells, Brunner’s glands, and I cells)

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56
Q

goblet cells

A

secrete mucus

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57
Q

paneths cells

A

lymphatic tissue

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58
Q

absorptive cells

A

produce brush border enzymes

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59
Q

what are the types of cell in the enteroendocrine cells?

A

S cells, K cells, Brunners glands, and I cells

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60
Q

S cells

A
  • found in the crypts of Lieberkuhn
  • produce secretin
  • secretin stimulates the production of bile from the liver and insulin from beta cells in the pancreas
61
Q

K cells

A

produces gastric inhibitory glycoprotein
- this inhibits gastrin and stimulates insulin

62
Q

insulin

A
  • produced by the beta cells in the pancreas
  • take excess glucose and convert it into its stored form called glycogen to regulate blood glucose level
63
Q

brunners gland

A

-produces mucus & urogastrone (inhibits all gastric glands)

64
Q

I cells

A
  • produce cholecystokinin ( stimulates pancreatic juice from acini)
65
Q

what is the middle part of the small intestine?

A

jejunum

66
Q

what happens in the jejunum?

A

most absorption happens in the jejunum
* it has lots of plicae (circular folds in the small intestine) that helps greatly with absorptive area

67
Q

what is the last part of the small intestine?

A

ileum

68
Q

what happens in the ileum? what does the ileum contain?

A

-in the ileum, there is a smoothening of plicae
- the ileum contains peyers patches:
- clusters of lymphatic tissue that protects against the bacteria of the large intestine

69
Q

what are the functions of the large intestine?

A
  • water and vitamin absorption
  • compaction and storage of feces
70
Q

what are the first part of the large intestine?

A

cecum

71
Q

what is within the cecum? what does it do

A

veriform appendix; develops immunity and maintains the gut flora in the large

72
Q

what is the order of digestion in the large intestine?

A

ascending colon -> transverse colon -> descending colon -> sigmoid colon -> anus/ rectum

73
Q

what are the structures within the large intestine?

A

haustra & goblet cells

74
Q

haustra/ what is the name for inflammation of the haustra?

A

pouches for expansion / diverticulitis

75
Q

what do goblet cells do?

A

secrete mucus

76
Q

what are the three parts of the mucosa of the digestive system?

A
  1. the epithelium
  2. lamina propira
  3. muscalaris mucosae
77
Q

epithelium of the digestive tract

A
  1. simple columnar - stomach and the intestines
  2. stratified squamous - anal canal, mouth, oropharynx, and esophagus
78
Q

what is the lamina propria? what does it contain?

A

*underlying connective tissue
* blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels

79
Q

mucosal mucosae

A

longitudinal and circular layers of smooth muscle

80
Q

what is the submucosa? what does it contain?

A

thick layer of connective tissue containing nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.
- contains a submucosal plexus

81
Q

what is a submucosal plexus?

A

a network of sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nerve fibers

82
Q

muscularis externa and what does it contain?

A

“outermost layer of the mucosa”
_-longitudinal and circular smooth muscle layers
- contains the myenteric plexus

83
Q

the muscularis externa is an addition of what type of muscle to the stomach?

A

oblique

84
Q

myentric plexus

A

parasympathetic, sympathetic, and enteric nerves that control the muscle layers

85
Q

serosa/ adventitia

A

outer most layer of the membranous layer

86
Q

serosa

A

below the diaphragm & visceral peritoneum

87
Q

adevntitia

A
  • above the diaphragm & connects the esophagus to the trachea and the aorta
88
Q

what is the blood flow in the live?

A
  • Nutrient-rich and oxygen-poor blood enters from the hepatic portal vein
  • Nutrient-poor and oxygen-rich blood enters from the hepatic artery
  • these bloods mix in the hepatic sinusoids and leave the liver via the hepatic veins
89
Q

what are the different types of liver cells?

A
  1. hepatocytes
  2. kupffer cells
90
Q

what are the functions of heptaocytes?

A
  1. produce bile from bilirubin
  2. nutrient introconversion
  3. detoxification
  4. produce plasma proteins
  5. deamination/;transamination
91
Q

what are the parts of nutrient introconversion?

A
  1. glycogenesis ( production of glycogen )
    - sugar levels are high in the blood, so insulin stimulates the production of glycogen to store it
  2. glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen)
    - when there is not enough sugar in the blood (in between meals and when we are exercising), glycogen is broken down into glucose to enter the blood stream
  3. ## gluconeogenesis: (body synthesizes new glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors like amino acids, lactate, and glycerol
92
Q

what inhibits gluconeogenesis?

A

insulin

93
Q

deamination

A

the removal of an amino acid group and hydrogen from an amino acid that thus form ammonia (toxic byproduct) and ketoacid

94
Q

transamination

A

the removal of an amino acid group from an amino acid and attaching it -;[o a-+ keto acid

95
Q

Kupffer cells

A

store heavy metals like iron and perform phagocytosis

96
Q

what are the two things included in liver pathology?

A

cirrhosis and hemachromotosis

97
Q

what is cirrhosis? what is it caused by? what are the symptoms?

A

damage to the hepatocytes (chronic liver damage)
- caused virally (hepatitis) or alcohol-related
- symptoms: jaundice, edema, ascites

98
Q

jaundice

A

too much bilirubin

99
Q

ascites

A

accumulation of fluid between the visceral and parietal peritoneum from hypertension in the hepatic portal vein

100
Q

edema

A

peripheral swelling due to decreased production of plasma proteins leading to decreased BCOP… means more filtration to the tissues

101
Q

hematochromotosis

A

Kupffer cells hoard iron
- the same symptoms as cirrhosis including high plasma iron and damages other organs

102
Q

what happens in the pancreas?

A

the acini is stimulated by the cholecystokinin andthe parasympathetic nervous system to produce pancreatic juices

103
Q

what do pancreatic juices contain?

A
  1. proteases (trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase
  2. pancreatic amylase
  3. lipase
  4. deoxyribose and ribose nucleases
104
Q

what does a protease do?

A
  • are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide binds between amino acids
105
Q

trypsin

A

produced and released by the pancreas in its inactive form of trypsinogen

106
Q

what converts chymotrypsinogen into chymotrypsin?

A

trypsin

107
Q

elastase

A

breaks down elastin (protein that provide elasticity to the tissue)

108
Q

what is the autoregulation for the digestive system?

A

stretch, pH, and paracrine factors that stimulate secretion/inhibition of glands and cells (enteroendocrine cells)

109
Q

what is involved in nervous system regulation of the digestive system?

A
  • parasympathetic regulation: stimulates digestive activities
    -sympathetic regulation: inhibits digestive activities
    -enteric division: (short reflexes) the sensory receptors in the enteric motor neurons in the submucosal and myenteric plexuses activate peristalsis
110
Q

break down/absorption of carbohydrates

A

*salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase break carbohydrates down into disaccharides and trisaccharides
* brush border enzymes break disaccharides and trisaccharides down into monosaccarhdirdes

111
Q

what are the types of monosaccharides are di and trisaccarides broken down into?

A

*lactase - breaks lactose into glucose and galactose
*maltase - breaks maltose into tow glucose
*sucrose- breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose

112
Q

how are monosaccarides absorbed into the intestinal epithelium?

A

facilitated diffusion, this uses uni porters, then the monosaccharide is cotransporter with sodium into the blood stream

113
Q

protein breakdown and absorption

A

proteases break down proteins into dipeptides,tripeptides, and amino acids

114
Q

how are proteins absorbed into the intestinal epithelium?

A
  • co transport with Na, or with H in combination with counter transport of K
  • or just counter transport with H
    (these are all multiporters)
115
Q

lipid breakdown and abosorption

A

lipases break down lipids into fatty acids and monoglycerides

116
Q

how are lipids absorbed through the intestinal epithelium?

A

the monoglyceride and fatty acid bind with bile salts to produce micelles
- the micelles use simple diffusion to be absorbed by the intestinal epithelium

117
Q

what happens when the micelle enters the cell?

A

the micelle is reconverted into a triglyceride and coated with proteins now called a chylomicron (a type of lipoprotein)

118
Q

what then happens to the chylomicrons?

A

the chylomicrons are then exocytosed into lacteals, and then returned to the blood

119
Q

how is water absorbed?

A

moves osmotically

120
Q

how are ions absorped?

A

move according to concentration gradient

121
Q

how is calcium absorbed?

A

calcitriol, PTH, an calcitonin

122
Q

what are the fat soluable vitamins? and how are the absorbed?

A

vitamin A, D, E, and K
these are absorbed with micelles

123
Q

what are the water-soluble vitamins and how are they absorbed?

A

vitamins B and C
* these are asborbed through simple diffusion

124
Q

what is the water-soluble vitamin that is not absorbed through simple diffusion and how is it absorbed?

A

vitamin b 12 and binding to intrinsic factors

125
Q

how is acteyl co A made for the krbes cycle

A
  1. deamination made by products of keto acid and ammonia
    - the keto acid then reacts with coenzyme A then forms acetyl co A which then enters the Krebs cycle
  2. other amino acids (glucogen amino acids) can break down directly into pyruvate acid and can react with coenzyme A and create acetyl co A
126
Q

why is it better to not use proteins for energy?

A
  1. they are required for structural purposes
  2. deamination makes a toxic by-product called ammonia
  3. deamination can result in ketoacidosis
127
Q

what are the difference between lipids and glucose?

A
  • lipids supply energy at a slower rate (lipids are more effective)
  • lipids are used more by muscles during rest and during endurance activities (lipid uptake increased from the blood )
  • glucose is used more by muscles during intense activities (glucose uptake from blood is increased)
128
Q

when is glycolysis/pyruvate used?

A

when we are in need for quick and easy glucose/ quick energy

129
Q

when id deamination done?

A

when we have nothing else

130
Q

where does spermatogenesis occur?

A

in the seminifirous tubules in the testes

131
Q

where are the testes located and why?

A

the testes are located outside the body because the sperm needs a lower temperature

132
Q

how what does spermatogenesis start with and what happens during this stage?

A

it starts with spermatogonia
* in this stage, stem cells are located in the outer pars of the tubule and during mitosis one is split into primary spermatocytes

133
Q

describe and explain what happens with the primary spermatocytes

A
  • the primary spermatocytes are close to the lumen, has 46 chromosomes, and divide by meiosis one to produce secondary spermatocytes
134
Q

describe and explain what happens with the secondary spermatocytes?

A
  • these are closer to the lumen, have only 23 chromosomes and divide by meiosis 2 into spermatids
135
Q

describe and explain what happens with spermatids?

A

at the lumen, haploid, and they develop into spermoctyes

136
Q

what is the complete process of spermatogenesis?

A

it starts with spermatagonia, which is divided by mitosis, then its the primary spermatocytes which is divided by meiosis 1, then the secondary spermatocytes are divided by meiosis 2 into spermatids which then develop into spermatocytes

137
Q

how do the testes develop and what do they descend down and when?

A

retroperitoneally, they desecend down into the inguinal canals before birth

138
Q

cryptorchidism

A

failure of the testes to descend

139
Q

sustentacular cells

A

located in the seminiferous cells in the testes
- these aid in spermatogenesis

140
Q

functions of sustentacular cells

A
  • blood testes barrier: maintains the required environment for sperm development
  • produce inhibins when stimulated by FSH; they inhibit FSH production
    *secrete androgen-binding protein: increase testosterone levels
141
Q

what are the male accessory organs?

A

the prostate gland, the bulburetoheral glands, and the seminal vesicles

142
Q

prostate gland

A

produces seminal plasmin (antibiotic)

143
Q

seminal vesicles

A

produce fructose, fibrinogen, and prostaglandins

144
Q

bulboursthreal (cowlers ) gland

A

produces lubricants and buffers

145
Q

male gnRH

A
  • from the hypothalamus
    *stimulates the release of FSH and LH
146
Q

FSH

A

*stimulates sustentacular cells to promote spermatogenesis

147
Q

LH

A
  • stimulates interstitial cells to produce testosterone
148
Q

testosterone

A
  • primary male androgen
  • stimulates:
  • sustentacular cells
    -sex drive
    -secondary sex characteristics
    -cartilage, muscle, and protein synthesis

BIO 222 (7 decks)

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