Digestion and Metabolism (Ch. 41) Study Guide- Human Digestion:

Question 1

What is the order of the structures of the digestive system in humans?

Answer 1

a. Mouth/Oral Cavity:
- Teeth
b. Salivary glands
c. Pharynx
d. Esophagus
e. Stomach
f. Small Intestine
g. Pancreas
h. Liver
i. Colon
j. Control of Digestion - nerves and hormones

Question 2

What digestion occurs in the mouth and how?

Answer 2

Teeth- tears and crushes food into smaller pieces to start digestion process.

Salivary glands- 3 pairs of glands in mouth secrete 1/2 ml/min when no food is present. Nervous stimulation of the glands increses release of salive (salt, water, mucus, urea and an enzyme amylase. Amylase breaks down starch into disaccharides (maltose). Saliva is basic and helps neutralize the acids produced by bacteria.

Pharynx- back of mouth contains lymphatic tissues- tonsils and adenoids. If these become chronically inflamed they may need to be removed. As we swallow food passes through pharynz to esophagus. A flap of tissue folds down- Epiglottis- to cover the openinf to the trachea so food doesn’t go down the “wrong pipe”.

Question 3

Discuss the # and type of human teeth::

Answer 3

Humans have a combination of both sharp in front and flatter in back. Present in the upper and lower jaws with 32 teeth total and 20 of which are deciduous (milk) and are replaced during childhood:

Teeth of upper and lower jaws-

Front (4)- Incisors- chisel like for tearing

Cuspids (2)- canines - one on each side of incisors. Pointed and used for tearing.

Premolars (4) bicuspids- two on each side of cuspids. Float with sharp ridges for grinding.

Molars (6) tricuspids- three on each side behind premolars. Flat with sharp ridges for grinding. The last molar on each side are the “wisdom teeth” which are no longer useful and can cause problems for space and misalignment or abscess.

Question 4

What are some problems for human teeth:

Answer 4

Smaller jaw from evolution forces problem with “wisdom teeth” molars- they can push up at odd angles and become “impacted” causing: abscess (infection under the gum line) , root erosion, misalignment of teeth and jaw bone, jaw fracture.

Cavity- bacteria feeds on food between teeth. They produce an acid waste that breks down the tooth’s enamel. They can stick to the teeth because of their peptidoglycon outer coating.

Crown- cusp (point or ridge) of tooth breks off. The dentist grinds down top of tooth and replaces it with porcelain or gold “cast” or crown.

Cap- crown on front teeth.

Question 5

What is the function of liver bile:

Answer 5

The liver releases bile through the bile duct into the duodenum. Bile emulsifies lipids (coats fats breaking them into small droplets and mixes with water) so they can be digested.

Bile is stored in the gall bladder and released when lipids are in duodenum.

Question 6

Discuss how the liver regulates the contents of the blood:

Answer 6

The liver regulates the contents of the blood by:

1. Metabolizing (breaking down) alcohol, drugs and rendering it harmless (in small quantities) and makes Toxins, pesticides, carcinogens and some poisons less toxic. Also the normal steroid hormones that aid in muscle production and repair are metabolized.
2. Producing most of the blood clotting proteins. The liver produces serum albumins (proteins) that can be added to the blood or taken out to regulate water levels preventing Edema (water build up in tissues). Blood ecomes hpotonic to tissue cells.

Question 7

The colon: Discuss the function of the large intestine:

Answer 7

The main function of the colon is to absorb water from feces and reabsorb salt.

Some bacterial breakdown of cellulose occurs.

Feces is compacted and stored.

Some manufacture of vitamins by bacteria (ex. vitamin k- clots blood.

Question 8

Neural and hormonal control of digestion:

Discuss the role played by the hormone:

Gastrin-

Answer 8

hormone released by stomach when protein is present. it causes release of HCL and pepsinogen as pH drops.

Question 9

Neural and hormonal control of degestion:

Discuss the role played by the hormone:

Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)

Answer 9

Prevents movement of chyme from stomach to duodenum until duodenum is empty. Fat in chyme causes release of GIP.

Question 10

Neural and hormonal control of digestion:

Discuss the role played by:

cholecystokinin

Answer 10

Stimulates contaction of gall bladder and release of liver bile into the duodenum. Triggered by fat in duodenum.

Question 11

Neural and hormonal control of digestionL

Discuss the role played by the hormone:

secretin-

Answer 11

Stimulates release of bicarbonate ion by pancreas. Triggered by acidity in chyme in duodenum.

Question 12

Symbiosis and vertebrate digestion:

Discuss symbiosis in the vertebrate digestive system:

Answer 12

Because vertebrates do not produce enzymes that hydolyze cellulose they need to house large populations of symbiotic bacteria and protists in fermentation chambers in their alimentary canals.

These microorganizms do have enzymes that can digest cellulose to simple sugars and other compounds that the animal can absorb.

In many cases the microorganizms also use sugars from digested cellulose along with minerals to make a variety of nutrients essential to the animal, such as vitamins and amino acids.

Question 13

Metabolism:

Discuss the basal metabolic rate and obesity:

Answer 13

Basil metabolic rate is the energy used to maintain homeostasis. Mammals and birds are endothermic, (warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism and their body temp is maintained within. In contrast fish, amphibians and reptiles are ectothermic - they gain their heat from external sources) which affects the basal metabolic rate but other items like body size and activity affect the rate.

Hormones affect metabolic rate too. Weight-regulating hormones are polypetides (proteins). These are:

Insulin- which causes liver and muscle cells to absorb glucose and stre it as a starch called glycogen

Glucagon- causes break down of glycogen and release of glucose.

Obesity occurs when hormones chnge. Appetite-regulating hormones are secreted by various organs and the brain.

Leptin suppresses appetite as its level increases. When body fat decreases, leptin levels fall, and appetite increases.

Ghrelin is an appetite stimulant secreted y the stomach wall and is one of the signals that triggers feelings of hunger as mealtimes approach.

The hormone PYY secreted by the small intestine after meals acts as an appetite suppressant that counters the appetite stimulant ghrelin.

A rise in blood sugar level after a meal stimulates the pancreas to secrete insulin which suppresses appetite by acting on the brain.

Question 14

Metabolism:

Discuss leptin:

Answer 14

Leptin suppresses appetite as its level increases. When body fat decreases, leptin levels fall, and appetite increases.

Most obese people have an abnormally high level of leptin which stimulates apetite and prevents weight loss.

Question 15

Diseases of the Degestive Tract:

List and define 12 diseases:

Answer 15

Cavity- bacteria feed on food between teeth producing an acid wast that breaks down the tooth’s enamal. They can stick to the teeth because of their peptidoglycon outer coating.

Abscess- in the mouth caused by localized infection under the gum line caused by molars root erosion.

Impacted wisom tooth- teeth grow in poorly, crooked due to overcrowded mouth/jaw. Causes infection and can lead to eroded and brocken jaw.

Pernicious anemia- related to incorrect polypeptide secretion by parietal cells in stomach. Causes Low B12 which is necessary for production of red blood cells.

Jaundice- bile “backs up” into blood and skin turns yellow.

Hepatitis- Viral infection of the liver. Usually accompanied by jaundice. Can be fatal.

Gall stones- Calcified Liver bile. Can block the bile duct.

Edema- Caused by bad functioning Liver. Water builds up in tissues due to lack of serum albumins (proteins produced by liver). Blood becomes hyopotonic to tissue cells.

Appendicitis- Associated with Colon. inflamed appendix. Bacteria produce todxins that eat away tissue.

Diarrhea- inflamed colon won’t absorb water from feces.

Hemorrhoids- In Colon, inflamed and swollen anal veins. May bleed. Painful.

Colostomy- An artificial exit from the colon created to divert waste through a hole in the colon and through the wall of the abdomen. A colostomy is commonly performed by severing the colon and then attaching the end leading to the stomach to the skin, through the wall of the abdomen. Usually a colostomy is performed because of infection, blockage, cancer, or in rare instances, severe trauma of the colon.

Question 16

Esophagus

Answer 16

First tube that separates food from air. Connects pharynx to stomach. 10” long. Circular muscles contract- PERISTALISIS- and squeeze food along to a concentrated ring of circular muscle-sphincter-which can pinch down and prevent food. Spincters keep food in a part of the digestive until it has completed the necessary phase of digestion.

Question 17

Stomach

Answer 17

Muscular sack that starts the break down of proteins into peptide chains:

• size increases to hold about a gallon (2-4 liters)- DISTENSION- expansion
• normally folded up like an accordian when empty (-50 milliliters). Can distend to allow for “gorging” by carnivores
• extra muscle layer allows stomach to “churn”
• stomach produces gastric juices:
  a. hydrochloric acid (HCL) produced by secretory cell called a parietal cell. Lowers ph\H to 2. Low pH activates prtease enzyme. HCL helps denature (remove amino groups) proteins into smaller polypeptides. Stomach acid also kills most of the bacteria in the food we eat. Some bacteria can withstand the low pH and live in the small and large intestine.
  b. pepsinogen- an enzyme is converted to pepsin (a more active form) in a low pH environment.

Food Chewed and swallowed into the stomach is called a BOLUS.

Food in the stomach and small intestine is called CHYME. Chyme stayes in stomach 2-4 hours.

The lining of the stomach is- the GASTRIC MUCOSA- which produces a basic mucus that protects the stomach from its own digestive juices.

An ULCER forms when production of too much acid for mucosa and the mucosa gets eaten away. Or under production of mucus to protect the stomach lining (Gastric mucosa). Gastric ulcer occurs in the stomach. Duodenal uslcer in first foot of small intestine (most ulcers (90%) are duodenal.

Water, alcohol and aspirin are about all that can be absorbed through stomach into blood.

Question 18

Small Intestine

Answer 18

Final digestion and absorption occurs in the small intestine.

-18-22 feet (4.5 meter) long.

The first 1 foot is the DUODENUM. Most digestion occurs in the duodenum. Absorption occurs all alonf small intestine.

• The liver “dumps” bile into duodenum.
• The pancreas “dumps” digestive enzymes into the duodenum.

Small intestine - Duodenum 1-1.5 feet/ mostly digestion

Jejunum = 7 feet for absorption & digestion

Ileum = last 4 feet for absorption & didestion

Villi increase the surface area of the small intestine for greater absorption. Microvilli absorb nutrients and pass monsaccharides and amino acids into capillary network of villus.

Question 19

What enzymes are secreted into the duodenum by the Pancreas?

Answer 19

1. Trypsin- digests protein
2. Chymotrypsin- digests protein
3. Pancreatic amylase- digests starch
4. Lipase- digests lipids

The enzymes are not very active until they are activated by the bruxh border enzymes of the Mictovilli. The pancreas also secretes bicarbonate ions that neutralize the gastric acid in the chyme. This prevents duodenal ulcers.

Question 20

What are the two hormones produced by the Pancreas to control the level of glucose in the blood?

Answer 20

1. INSULIN- causes liver and muscle cells to absorb glucose and store it as a starch called glycogen.
2. GLUCAGON- causes break down glycogen and release of glucose.

These hormones control the level of glucose in the blood by regulating how much glycogen is in the liver. We have a 10 hour reseve.

gluconeogenesis- conversion of acids from muscle tissue into glucose by liver.

Question 21

Digestion =

Answer 21

The hydrolysis of polymers to monomers,

Polysaccharides to monosaccharides,

Lipids to fatty acids and glycerol,

Nucleic acids to nucleotides.

Question 22

Discuss the purpose and content of saliva:

Answer 22

Saliva is made of salt, water, mucus, urea and an enzyme amylase. Amlase breaks down starch into disaccharides (maltose). Saliva is basic and helps neutralize the acids produced by bacteria.

Question 23

The pharynx:

Discuss the tonsils and adenoids:

Answer 23

The tonsils and adenoids are lymphatic tissues which are located at the back of the mouth or Pharynx.

If these become chronically inflamed they may need to be removed.

Question 24

The esophagus:

What is the function of the esophagus:

Answer 24

The first tube that separates food from air. It connects the pharynx to the stomach. It has circular muscles (Sphincters) that contract (PERISTALISIS) this helps to move and squeeze food along and keep food in a part of the degestive system until it has completed this phase of digestion.

Question 25

The stomach:

Discuss digestion in the stomach:

Answer 25

Food enters the stomach which is a muscular sack that starts the break down of proteins into peptide chains.

The stomach produces gastric juices to aid in the continued breakdown of food. The gastric juices include:

1. HCL which is an acid and lowers the pH in the stomach to 2 which activates the protease enzyme. The HCL helps to denature proteins into smaller polypeptides and also kills most of the bacteria in the food we eat..
2. Pepsinogen, an enzyme is converted to pepsin (a more active form) in a low pH environments.

Question 26

Discuss esophageal, gastric and duodenal ulcers. Include the following in your discussion:

• gastric juices
• sphincters,
• bicarbonate ion from the pancreas
• gastric mucosa

Answer 26

An ulcer is a sore or open wound that forms in the esophagus, stomach or the upper part of the small intestine, called the duodenum.

Esphageal ulcers form in the esphagus.

A Gastric ulcer forms in the stomach

A duodenal ulcer forms in the first foot of the small intestine or duodenum. Most ulcers (-90%) are duodenal.

When food enters the stomach gastric juices are produced. Gastric juices include HCL, an acid and pepsinogen which is converted to pepsin, an active enzyme. The gastric juices lower the pH in the stomach to an acid of 2 pH.

The Lining of the stomach, called the GASTRIC MUCOSA produces a basic mucus that protects the stomach wall from damage from the digestive, gastric juices.

Circuler muscles, called sphincters are located in the esophagus- to keep food and gastric juices in the stomach and out of the esophagus and just before the Small Intestine in the DUODENUM (first foot) to control food and gastric juices from entering the DUODENUM.

The pancreas secretes bicarbonate ions into the duodenum which helps to neutralize the gastric acid in the chyme preventing duodenal ulcers.

Ulcers occur in the Esophogus as an esophageal ulcer when the sphincter isn’t working correctly and gastric juices enter the esophagus.

Ulcers occur in the stomach as gastric ulcers when there is either an over production of acid or under production of mucus.

Ulcers occur in the duodenum as duodenal ulcers when either the sphincter allows gastric juices to enter Duodenum and/or the pancreas is not secreting bicarbonate ions appropriately into the duodenum.

Question 27

The small intestine:

Discuss the structure and function of the small intestine:

Answer 27

The Small Intestine is the area of final digestion and nutrient absorption. It is 18-22 feet long (4.5 meters). The Pyloric Sphincter from the stomach opens and lets chyme squirt into the duodenum a little at the time. Most digestion occurs in the duodenum. Absorption occurs all along the small intestine.

The Liver “dumps” bile into duodenum.

The pancreas “dumps” digestive enzymes into the duodenum.

The first 1 foot is the DUODENUM which is mostly digestion.

The next 7 feet is the Jejunum where absorption and digestion occurs

The last 4 feet is the Ileum where absorption and digestion occurs.

Question 28

Discuss the structure of the villi and their role in absorption:

Answer 28

The Villi are fingerlike projections lining the circular folds of the small intestine. E#ach epithelial cell of a villus has many microscopic appendages called microvilli. The Villi increase the surface area of the small intestine for greater nutrient absorption. Microvilli absorb nutrients and pass monsaccharides and amino acids into capillary network of villus.

Question 29

What are brush border enzymes:

Answer 29

This is the epithelial lining of the duodenum and is the source of several digestive enzymes which allow absorption of nutrients. The enzymes are:

• aminopeptidases, which break down peptides into amino acids.
• maltase, which hydrolysese maltose into glucose
• sucrase, which hydroyses sucrose into glucose and fructose
• lactase, which hydrolyses lactose into glucose and galactose

the products of these enzymes are then absorbed into the blood.

Question 30

The pancreas:

Discuss the digestive role of the pancreas

Answer 30

The Prancreas produces digestive juices. and “dumps” those juicesinto the Small Intestine. The digestive juices provided by the pancdreas include the enxymes:

trypsin- digests protein

chymotrypsin- digests protein

pancreatic amylase- digests starch

lipase- digests lipids

The enzymes are not very active until they are activated by the bruxh border enzymes of the Microvilli.

The pancreas also secretes bicarbonate ions that neutralize the gastric acid in the chyme from the stomach.

The pancreas also produces two hormones that control the level of glucose in the blood. These are:

Insulin- which causes liver and muscle cells to absorb glucose and stre it as a starch called glycogen

Glucagon- causes break down of glycogen and release of glucose.

Question 31

The pancreas:

Discuss the role the pancreas plays in the glucose level of the blood:

Answer 31

The pancreas produces two hormones that control the level of glucose in the blood. These are:

• Insulin- which causes liver and muscle cells to absorb glucose and store it as a starch called glycogen
• Glucagon- causes break down of glycogen and release of glucose.

These hormones control the level of glucose in the blood by regulating how much glycogen is in the liver. We have a 10 hour reserve,

Gluconeogenesis- conversion of amino acids from muscle tissue into glucose by liver.

Question 32

Discuss the differences in digestive tracts between Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores with respect to: Teeth

Discuss the differences in digestive tracts between Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores with respect to:

Teeth

Answer 32

Carnivores have sharp teeth for tearing and cutting

Herbivores have flatter teeth for grinding cellulose and plant material

Omnivores have a combination of both, sharp in front and flatter in back. Humans have 32/teeth/20 of which are deciduous (milk).

Carnivores have sharp teeth for tearing and cutting

Herbivores have flatter teeth for grinding cellulose and plant material

Omnivores have a combination of both, sharp in front and flatter in back. Humans have 32/teeth/20 of which are deciduous (milk).

Question 33

Discuss the differences in digestive tracts between Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores with respect to:

Stomach

Discuss the differences in digestive tracts between Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores with respect to:

Stomach

Discuss the differences in digestive tracts between Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores with respect to:

Teeth

Answer 33

Carnivores have Larger stomachs that can extend and t hey excrete more powerful enzymes and higher concentrations of HCL than hervivores or humans.

Herbivores have smaller stomachs meant to process less food and produce less powerful enzymes because the don’t need it to process meat because they process only plant matter. Herbivores either have more stomach chambers (ruminants e.g. cows) and use symbiotic bacteria to help breakdown plants and their stomachs or most of the diestions occur in their intestines (Foregut fermenters eg dogs).

Carnivores have sharp teeth for tearing and cuttingHHumans have a combination th

Herbivores have flatter teeth for grinding cellulose and plant materialHerbivores use symbiotic bacteria to help breakdown plants and are Foregut fermenters such as the ruminants (e.g. cows) have stomachs that are divided into multiple chambers, and much of the fermentation (digestion by bacteria) occurs in the stomach chambers. Horses and rabbits are hindgut fermenters. They do not have multiple-chambered stomachs. Most of the digestion occurs in the intestines or hindgut.Herbivores use symbiotic bacteria to help breakdown plants and are Foregut fermenters such as the ruminants (e.g. cows) have stomachs that are divided into multiple chambers, and much of the fermentation (digestion by bacteria) occurs in the stomach chambers. Horses and rabbits are hindgut fermenters. They do not have multiple-chambered stomachs. Most of the digestion occurs in the intestines or hindgut.Herbivores use symbiotic bacteria to help breakdown plants and are Foregut fermenters such as the ruminants (e.g. cows) have stomachs that are divided into multiple chambers, and much of the fermentation (digestion by bacteria) occurs in the stomach chambers. Horses and rabbits are hindgut fermenters. They do not have multiple-chambered stomachs. Most of the digestion occurs in the intestines or hindgut.HervivoreHerHum

Question 34

Discuss the differences in digestive tracts between Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores with respect to:

Intestine

Discuss the differences in digestive tracts between Herbivores, Carnivores and Omnivores with respect to:

Intestine

Answer 34

No invertibrates produce enzymes which can digest plant materials. Carnivores have shorter, straighter intestines than Herbivores which have longer and more winding intestine which is many times longer than the animals body to aid in the digestion (using simbiotic bacteris) of the hard to digest plant material.

Carnivores like ferrets and frogs have very short, straight intestines, because the stomach does all the digestion. Herbivores like elephants have long, winding intestines. The reason they are winding is because that allows the intestine to be many times longer than the animals body itself. Foregut fermenters such as the ruminants (e.g. cows) have stomachs that are divided into multiple chambers, and much of the fermentation (digestion by bacteria) occurs in the stomach chambers. Horses and rabbits are hindgut fermenters. They do not have multiple-chambered stomachs. Most of the digestion occurs in the intestines or hindgut.Carnivores like ferrets and frogs have very short, straight intestines, because the stomach does all the digestion. Herbivores like elephants have long, winding intestines. The reason they are winding is because that allows the intestine to be many times longer than the animals body itself. Foregut fermenters such as the ruminants (e.g. cows) have stomachs that are divided into multiple chambers, and much of the fermentation (digestion by bacteria) occurs in the stomach chambers. Horses and rabbits are hindgut fermenters. They do not have multiple-chambered stomachs. Most of the digestion occurs in the intestines or hindgut.Carnivores like ferrets and frogs have very short, straight intestines, because the stomach does all the digestion. Herbivores like elephants have long, winding intestines. The reason they are winding is because that allows the intestine to be many times longer than the animals body itself. Foregut fermenters such as the ruminants (e.g. cows) have stomachs that are divided into multiple chambers, and much of the fermentation (digestion by bacteria) occurs in the stomach chambers. Horses and rabbits are hindgut fermenters. They do not have multiple-chambered stomachs. Most of the digestion occurs in the intestines or hindgut.Carnivores like ferrets and frogs have very short, straight intestines, because the stomach does all the digestion. Herbivores like elephants have long, winding intestines. The reason they are winding is because that allows the intestine to be many times longer than the animals body itself. Foregut fermenters such as the ruminants (e.g. cows) have stomachs that are divided into multiple chambers, and much of the fermentation (digestion by bacteria) occurs in the stomach chambers. Horses and rabbits are hindgut fermenters. They do not have multiple-chambered stomachs. Most of the digestion occurs in the intestines or hindgut.Carnivores like ferrets and frogs have very short, straight intestines, because the stomach does all the digestion. Herbivores like elephants have long, winding intestines. The reason they are winding is because that allows the intestine to be many times longer than the animals body itself. Foregut fermenters such as the ruminants (e.g. cows) have stomachs that are divided into multiple chambers, and much of the fermentation (digestion by bacteria) occurs in the stomach chambers. Horses and rabbits are hindgut fermenters. They do not have multiple-chambered stomachs. Most of the digestion occurs in the intestines or hindgut.Carnivores like ferrets and frogs have very short, straight intestines, because the stomach does all the digestion. Herbivores like elephants have long, winding intestines. The reason they are winding is because that allows the intestine to be many times longer than the animals body itself. Foregut fermenters such as the ruminants (e.g. cows) have stomachs that are divided into multiple chambers, and much of the fermentation (digestion by bacteria) occurs in the stomach chambers. Horses and rabbits are hindgut fermenters. They do not have multiple-chambered stomachs. Most of the digestion occurs in the intestines or hindgut.Carnivores like ferrets and frogs have very short, straight intestines, because the stomach does all the digestion. Herbivores like elephants have long, winding intestines. The reason they are winding is because that allows the intestine to be many times longer than the animals body itself. Foregut fermenters such as the ruminants (e.g. cows) have stomachs that are divided into multiple chambers, and much of the fermentation (digestion by bacteria) occurs in the stomach chambers. Horses and rabbits are hindgut fermenters. They do not have multiple-chambered stomachs. Most of the digestion occurs in the intestines or hindgut.

Carnivores have short, straight intestines, because the stomach does all the digestion. Herbivores have long, winding intestines. The reason they are winding is because that allows the intestine to be many times longer than the animals body itself.

Question 35

ComC Compl M MMechanical + Chemical + Absorption =MecMM

Answer 35

M

Question 36

Cavity

Answer 36

bacteria feed on food between teeth producing an acid waste that breaks down the tooth’s enamal. They can stick to the teeth because of their peptidoglycon outer coating.

Question 37

Abscess

Answer 37

in the mouth caused by localized infection under the gum line caused by molars root erosion.

Question 38

Impacted Wisdom Tooth

Answer 38

teeth grow in poorly, crooked due to overcrowded mouth/jaw. Causes infection and can lead to eroded and broken jaw

Question 39

Pernicious anemia

Answer 39

related to incorrect polypeptide secretion by parietal cells in stomach. Causes Low B12 which is necessary for production of red blood cells.

Question 40

Jaundice

Answer 40

bile “backs up” into blood and skin turns yellow.

Question 41

Hepatitis

Answer 41

Viral infection of the liver. Usually accompanied by jaundice. Can be fatal.

Question 42

Gall stones

Answer 42

Calcified Liver bile. Can block the bile duct.

Question 43

Edema

Answer 43

Caused by bad functioning Liver. Water builds up in tissues due to lack of serum albumins (proteins produced by liver). Blood becomes hyopotonic to tissue cells.

Question 44

Appendicitis

Answer 44

Associated with Colon. inflamed appendix. Bacteria produce todxins that eat away tissue.

Question 45

Diarrhea

Answer 45

• inflamed colon won’t absorb water from feces.

Question 46

Hemorrhoids

Answer 46

In Colon, inflamed and swollen anal veins. May bleed. Painful.

Question 47

Colostomy

Answer 47

An artificial exit from the colon created to divert waste through a hole in the colon and through the wall of the abdomen. A colostomy is commonly performed by severing the colon and then attaching the end leading to the stomach to the skin, through the wall of the abdomen. Usually a colostomy is performed because of infection, blockage, cancer, or in rare instances, severe trauma of the colon.