Digestiive System Flashcards
________ in food cannot be utilised by our body in their ORIGINAL form .
BIOMACROMOLECULES
In 1851 , ___ published a paper describing a structure located on the basilar membrane of the cochlea containing hair cells that convert sound vibrations into nerve impulses .
Alfonso corti
BIOMACROMOLECULES in our food have to be broken down into simple _______ forms . This is called digestion .
Absorbable
Digestion is carried out by our digestive system by _____and ____ method .
Mechanical
Biochemical
The human digestive system consists of the ____ and the ______.
Alimentary canal
Associated glands
The alimentary canal begins with the _____opening -the ____ and it opens _____ through the anuss .
Anterior
Mouth 👄
Posteriorly
The mouth leads to the ____ or _____.
Buccal cavity
Oral cavity
The _____cavity has a number of teeth .
Oral cavity
The oral cavity consists of ___and ____.
Teeth
muscular Tongue
Each tooth is embedded in a _____of ____.
Socket
Jaw bone 🦴
Each tooth is attached in a socket of jaw bone , this type of arrangement is called -
Thecodont
Majority of ______form 2 sets of teeth in their life .
Mammals including humans
The type of dentition in which a set of temp milk teeth or deciduous teeth is replaced by a set of permanent teeth or adult teeth , is called -
Diphyodont
An adult human has 32 permanent teeth which are of 4 diff teeth , this dentition is called -
Heterodont
Dental formula of an. Adult human teeth -
2123
——
2123
The hard chewing surface of teeth made up of _____ helps in the ______ of food .
Enamel
Mastication
The tongue is a _____ muscular organ attached to the _____ of ____ by the FRENULUM .
Freely movable
Floor
Oral cavity
The _____ surface of the tongue has small PROJECTIONS called ______
Upper
Papillae
Some ___bear taste buds .
Papillae
The oral cavity leads into a short _______.
Pharynx
___serves as a common passage for food and air .
Pharynx
The ___ and ____ open into the pharynx
Oesophagus
Trachea
A cartilaginous flap , EPIGLOTTIS prevents the entry of food 🥘 into the ______ during swallowing.
Glottis -opening of wind pipe (trachea )
The ______ is a thin tube extending posteriorly passing through the neck ,thorax and diaphragm .
Oesophagus
Oesophagus leads to a ___ shaped structure called stomach .
J
A muscular sphincter - _______ regulates the opening of oesophagus into the stomach .
Gastro-oesophageal sphincter
The stomach located in the _______ portion of the abdominal cavity .
Upper left
What are the parts of the stomach ?
4 Cardiac -into which oesophagus opens Fundus - Body -main central region Pyloric -opens into the intestines
_____ pat of stomach opens into the small intestines .
Pyrolic
Small intestine is distinguishable regions - a _____ shaped duodenum , middle ____ jejunum , and a _____ coiled ileum .
C
Long coiled
Highly
The opening of the stomach into the duodenum ids guarded by -
Pyloric sphincter
__ opens into the large intestines .
Ileum
Large intestine consists of ____,____and ____.
Caecum
Colon
Rectum
_____is a blind sac that hosts some _____ microorganisms .
Caecum
Symbiotic
A narrow finger-like tubular projection , the ______ which is a vestigial organ arises from the. ______.
Vermiform appendix
Caecum
The ___opens into the colon .
Caecum
The colon is divided into how many parts ,what ?
4 Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon
The _____ part of the large intestine opens into the rectum , which opens out through the anus .
Descending
not sigmoid -though it is the last part
The wal of the alimentary canal from ___ to _____ possesses 4 layers .
Oesophagus
Rectum
___ is the outermost layer of the alimentary canal and is made up of a _________ with some _______ .
Serosa
Thin mesothelium ( epithelium of visceral organs )
Connective tissue
___ is the epithelium of visceral organs ( like alimentary canal )
Mesothelium
In serosa
Muscularis layer is made up of ______ .
Smooth muscles .
The muscularis is layer has 2 parts : inner ____layer and outer ____layer .
Circular
Longitudinal
(An oblique muscle layer may be present in some regions )
An oblique muscle may be present in which layer of alimentary canal .
Muscularis
The sub-mucosal layer is formed of _____tissues containing __,_____and ____ .
Loose connective tissues
Nerves
Blood 🩸
lymph vessels
In duodenum , gland are present in the ________
Sub-mucosa
The innermost layer lining the lumen of the alimentary canal is the -
Mucosa
Which layer forms irregular folds in the stomach .
Mucosa
The mucosa forms irregular folds- ____ in the stomach and small finger-like foldings called - ____in the small intestine .
Rugae
Villi
The cells lining the villi produce numerous ,microscopic projections called _____ giving a ______appearance.
Microvilli
Brush-border
The villi and microvilli inc the ______ ENORMOUSLY .
SA
__ are supplied with a network of capillaries and the lacteal ( large lymph vessel )
Villi
Mucosal epithelium has ______ cells , which secrete mucus that help in lubrication .
Goblet
Mainly intestinal mucosa has goblet cells
Villi are supplied with _____ and _____.
Network of capillaries
Large lymph vessel -lacteal
______ also forms gland in the stomach .which gland ?
Mucosa
Gastric gland
Mucosa forms __ int he stomach and ____ in between the bases of villi in intestine .
Glands
Crypts ( crypts of lieberkuhn)
All the 4 layers show modifications in diff parts of the alimentary canal .T/F
T
____layer of alimentary canal has goblet cells .
Mucosal epithelium (Mainly intestinal mucosa has goblet cells )
__ hosts some symbiotic microorganisms 🦠 .
Caecum (not vermiform appendix - it is just a part of caecum )
(Caecum- 1st part of large intestine )
___ layer of alimentary canal is made of thin ,ESOTHELIUM
Serosa
With some connective tissue
____ layer is formed of loose connective tissue contain nerves ,blood ,lymph vessels .
Sub-Mucosa
In ______ glands are present in sub-mucosa
and mucosa forms glands in _____.
Duodenum
Stomach
The digestive glands associated with the alimentary canal include-
Salivary glands
Liver
Pancreas
Saliva is produced by ______of salivary glands .
3 pair
The __ glands are present in the cheek .(salivary )
Parotid
The ____are present in the LOWER JAW .(salivary glands)
Sub-maxillary/ sub-mandibular
The ______are present BELOW THE TONGUE .(salivary glands )
Sub-linguals
Where are the salivary glands situated ? Where do they secrete saliva ?
Just Outside the buccal cavity
Secrete salivary juice into the buccal cavity
_____ is the largest GLAND of the body weighing about _______ in an adult human .
Liver
1.2 -1.5 kg
Location of liver ?
In the abdominal cavity , just below the diaphragm
The liver has __ lobes .
2
The _____are the structural and functional units of liver containing ______ arranged in the form of ______.
Hepatic lobules
Hepatic cells
Cords
Each hepatic lobule is covered by a ________ sheath called ______.
Thin connective tissue sheath
Glisson’s capsule
The bile is secreted by the _____ cells and it passes through the _______ ducts to get stored in the gall bladder .
Hepatic
Hepatic
Bile is ____and ____ in a thin muscular sac -gall bladder .
Stored
Concentrated
The ______ duct along with ____ duct forms the common BILE DUCT .
Duct of gall bladder (CYSTIC DUCT )
Hepatic duct - from liver
The ____and ____duct open together into the DUODENUM as the COMMON ________ duct
Bile duct (common)
Pancreatic duct
Common HEPATO-PANCREATIC duct
The opening of HEPATO-PANCREATIC duct into the _____is guarded by the _____sphincter
Duodenum
Sphincter of ODDI
The pancreas is a _____organ situated btw the ____of the C-shaped duodenum
Compound(both exo and endo )
Limbs
What does the exo and endo crine parts of pancreas secrete -
Exocrine -alkaline pancreatic juice containing enzymes
Endocrine -hormones ,insulin, glucagon
The main functions performed by BUCCAL CAVITY -
2
Mastication of food
Facilitation of swallowing
The __and the ___ with the help of ___ , masticate and mix the food thoroughly .
Teeth 🦷
Tongue 👅
Saliva
MUCUS in SALIVA helps in ___and___ the masticated food particles into a BOLUS .
Lubricating
Adhering
The bolus is conveyed into the pharynx and then into the oesophagus by ___or ____ .
Swallowing
Deglutition
The bolus further passes through the oesophagus by successive waves of ____ called _____.
Muscular contractions
Peristalsis
The ___controls the passage of food into the stomach .
Gastro-oesophageal sphincter
The saliva secreted into the ORAL CAVITY contains ELECTROLYTES like ___,____,___ and __ .
Na +
K+
Cl-
HCO3-
The enzymes contained in SALIVA are -
salivary amylase
Lysozyme
The _____process of digestion is initiated in the oral cavity by the _____ action of salivary amylase .
Hydrolytic
Chemical
Salivary amylase is a _______enzyme whose ______action initiates digestion .
Carbohydrate splitting
Hydrolytic
About _____% of STARCH is hydrolysed in the oral cavity .
30%
Salivary amylase is active at a pH _______ present in the oral cavity.
6.8
Slightly acidic
____present in the saliva acts as an antibacterial agent that prevents infections .
Lysozyme
About 30 % starch is hydrolysed in the oral cavity by salivary amylase (optimum pH6.8 ) into a _____-____ .
Disaccharide
Maltose
The ______of stomach has GASTRIC GLANDS
Mucosa
Gastric glands have how many major types of cells ? Name them -
3
Mucus neck cells.
Peptic/chief cells
Parietal /oxyntic cells
______cells of the gastric gland secrete MUCUS .
Mucus neck cells
Peptic cells of gastric glands of stomach secrete ______ .
Proenzyme pepsinogen
Gastric lipase
Parietal cells of gastric gland in the stomach secrete ____and_____.
HCL Intrinsic factor (responsible for absorption of vit B12)
Proenzyme pepsinogen is secreted by _____ cells .
Peptic / chief
Factor essential for the absorption of B12 is secreted by -
Oxyntic /parietal cells of gastric glands
The stomach stores the food for ______ hours .
4-5
The food mixes thoroughly with the ______ of the stomach by the ____ movement of its ___walls and is called the CHYME .
Acidic gastric juice
Churning
Muscular walls
The _____on exposure to HCL gets converted to the active enzyme PEPSIN of the ______.
Proenzyme pepsinogen
Stomach (pepsin is the active enzyme of the stomach )
Pepsin coverts ___into _and _____.
Proteins
Proteoses
Peptones(peptides)
The ____and _____in the gastric juice play an imp role in lubrication and protection of the mucosal epithelium (from highly conc HCL)
Mucus
Bicarbonates
HCL provides ____ pH optimal for ____.
Acidic =pH 1.8
Pepsins
Rennin is a _____enzyme found in the __of infants which helps in the digestion of milk proteins .
Proteolytic (protein breaking )
Gastric juice
What is the function of mucus and bicarbonates in the GASTRIC JUICE ?
Imp role in lubrication , and protection of the mucosal epithelium from excoriation by the highly conc HCL.
Small amounts of _____are also secreted by the gastric glands .
Lipases
Various types of movements are generated by the ___layer of the small intestines .
Muscularis
The __, ____ and ____are the are the secretions released into the SMALL INTESTINES .
BILE
Pancreatic juice
Intestinal juice
Give a brief account of the process of digestion taking place in the STOMACH -
HCl concerts proenzyme pepsinogen into pepsin
Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses and peptones(peptides )
Rennin is the proteolytic (similar to pepsin ) in infants
Lipases are also present here
____and ___ are released through the HEPATOPANCREATIC DUCT in the small intestines ( duodenum ).
Pancreatic juice
Bile
The pancreatic juice (released into the duodenum ) contains INACTIVE enzymes - ______________
6 Trypinogen Chymotrypsinogen PROCARBOXYPEPTIDASE Amylases Lipases Nucleases
The pancreatic juice has ______enzymes .(active/inactive )
Inactive
_____is activated by an enzyme ENTEROKINASE secreted by ______.
Trypsinogen
Intestinal mucosa
Types in is converted into its active form ,which is ______ (by enterokinase ) which in turn activates other enzymes present in the ______.
Trypsin
Pancreatic juice
(Trypsinogen—->trypsin—>activates other enzymes )
This takes place in the small intestines (duodenum )
ENTEROKINASE is secreted by the ______.
Intestinal mucosa
The bile released into the DUODENUM contains ______,____,____and _____ .
Bile pigments (bilirubin ,biliverdin)
Bile salts
Cholesterol
Phospholipids
Bile secreted into duodenum (through hepaatopancretic duct ) does not contain _____
Enzymes
Bile has no enzymes
Function of bile -
1) Helps in emulsification of fats ( breakdown of fats into small micelles )
2) Activates LIPASES
___activates lipases in the small intestines (duodenum )
Bile
Emulsification of fats is the breakdown of fats into ___
Small micelles
The _________has GOBLET CELLS.
INTESTINAL MUCOSA
In the intestine , __cells secrete mucus , and in the stomach ____cells secrete mucus .
Goblet cells (in the mucosal epithelium of intestines) Mucus neck cells ( in the mucosa of stomach )
The secretions of the brunch-border cells of the mucosa along with the secretions of the GOBLET CELLS constitute ______.
Intestinal juice /succus entericus
What constitutes the intestinal juice/succus entericus ?
Secretions of brush border cells of mucosa +secretions of goblet cells (of mucosa )
Which enzymes does succus entericus contain ?
Variety of enzymes like- Disaccharidases (maltase) Dipeptidases Lipases Nucleosidases
The functions of MUCUS and BICARBONATES in the small intestines -
1) Protect the intestinal mucosa from acid
2) provide an alkaline medium (pH 7.8)for enzymatic activities
The bicarbonates released into the small intestines ( to provide alkalinity ) are from -
Pancreas
Which pH does mucus and bicarbonates provide in the small intestines ?
Alkaline - pH 7.8
____ ,____and __ provide the intestinal mucosa from acid and also provide alkalinity (pH7.8) .
MUCUS
Bicarbonates
BRUNNER’S GLAND (sub-mucosal )
A SUB-MUCOSAL gland which functions along with mucus and bicarbonates -
BRUNNER’S gland
____,__and __Are partially hydrolysed proteins in the chyme .
Proteins
Proteoses
Peptones
Partially hydrolysed proteins reaching the small intestines are acted upon by the _____enzymes of _____.
Proteolytic enzymes (protein breaking ) PANCREATIC JUICE 🥤
Partially hydrolysed proteins (proteins ,proteoses and peptones ) are converted to ____ in the ______ .
diPeptides
Small intestines
Proteins ,peptones and proteoses are converted to diPeptides in the small intestine by the action of which enzymes ?
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
CARBOXYPEPTIDASE
(1st of all , enterokinase converted trypsinogen into active trypsin , thin trypsin further converted chymotyrpsinogen and procarboxypeptidase into ACTIVE chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase )
Carbohydrates in the chyme are hydrolysed by ________ into _____.
Pancreatic amylase
Disaccharides
(In the small intestines )
In the __,fats are broken down by ___with the help of ___ into DI and MONO -GLYCERIDES .
Small intestines
Lipases
Bile
Is any amount of fat digested in the stomach also ?
Lipases are present in the stomach, but not bile
So maybe some of it is partially hydrolysed*
Fats are broken down into __and ___ in the small intestines .
Di-glycerides
Mono-glycerides
(By the action of lipase along with bile )
What role does AMYLASE play in the small intestines ?
It converts polysaccharides(starch) into disaccharides (maltose )
It plays almost the same role as it does in the mouth
______ in the pancreatic juice act on NUCLEIC ACIDS to form _____and _____ .(in small intestines )
Nucleases
Nucleotides
Nucleosides
Does the small intestine secrete any enzyme or al enzymes i it come from pancreas ?
Both
Intestinal juice And Pancreatic juice both act in the small intestines
(After the pancreatic juices have acted on the chyme , the succus entericus plays its part and acts on the breakdown products of the enzymes of pancreatic juices )
The enzymes in the ______ act on the end products of the rxns catalysed by pancreatic enzymes (amylase ,lipase ,nucleases ,trypsin ,chymotypsin and carboxypaptidase )to form the respective simple ___forms .
Succus entericus
Absorbable
What are the final steps in digestion ?
Rxns catalysed by enzymes of succus entericus (dipeptidase , maltase , lactase , nucleotidases ,nucleosidases ,sucrose ,lactase
The final steps in digestion occur very close to the ______ of the _____ .
Mucosal epithelial cells
Intestine
The breakdown of the BIOMACROMOLECULES ( by the enzymes of the succus entericus , the final steps of digestion ) occur in the ___region of the small intestines .
Duodenum
The simple substances formed in the last steps of digestion in the duodenum region are absorbed in the ____and ____ regions of the small intestines .
Jejunum
Ileum
In the final steps of digestion (in duodenum) , DIPEPTIDES are converted to _____by ___ .
Amino acids
Dipeptidases (ofsuccus entericus )
Maltose(disaccharide )formed from starch (polysaccharide ) is converted to ________ by _____ in the last step .
Glucose+glucose
Maltase ( of succus entericus )
Lactose is converted to __ and ___ by the action of enzymes of_____.
Glucose
Galactose
Intestinal juice ( succus entericus )—- lactase
Sucrose left is finally converted to _____and ____ by ____.
Glucose
Fructose
Sucrase (of succus entericus )
In the final steps of digestion occurring in the duodenum , NUCLEOTIDES are converted to ______ by ______ , which are in turn converted to ____ by______.
Nucleosides
Nucleotidases
Sugars+bases
Nucleosidases
The final product of nucleic acids is -
Sugars + bases
Nucleic acids ————>nucleotides and nucleosides (pancreatic juice-nucleases )
Nucleotides ————> nucleosides——> sugars+bases (intestinal juice -nucleotidases,nucleosidases)
No significant digestive activity occurs in the large intestines .T/F
T
Functions of large intestines -
1) absorption of some water , minerals and certain drugs
2) secretion of mucus (which helps in adhering the waste-undigested together and lubrications it for easy passage )
Drugs are absorbed in the -
Large intestines
The undigested , unabsorbed substances enter into the CAECUM through the ______which prevents back flow of faecal matter .
ILeo-caecal VALVE
The faecal matter are temporarily stored in the _____till defaecation .
Rectum
The activities of GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT are under __and ___control for proper coordination .
Hormonal
Neural
the muscular movements of diff parts of the alimentary canal can also be moderated by NEURAL MECHANISM ,both _____and through ___.
Local
CNS
Hormonal control of the secretion of digestive juices is carried out by ____hormones produced by ___ and ____ .
Local
Gastric mucosa
Intestinal mucosa
The sight ,smell or the presence of food in ORAL CAVITY can stimulate the secretion of saliva .T/F
T
Under neural control , similar to gastric and intestinal secretions
Gross calorific value of carbs-
4.1 kcal/g
Gross calorific value of proteins -
5.65 kcal/g
Gross calorific value of fats -
9.45 kcal/g
Physiological value of carbs -
4 kcal/g
Physiological value of proteins -
4.0 kcal/g
Physiological value of fats-
9.0 kcal/g
Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion pass through the ______into the ____or____ .
Intestinal mucosa
Blood
Lymph
Absorption of food is carried out by __,___ or ____ mechanisms .
Active transport
Passive transport
Facilitated transport
SMALL AMOUNTS of monosaccharides ,like GLUCOSE ,AMINO ACIDS and some electrolytes (like CHLORIDE IONS ) are generally absorbed by -
Simple diffusion *
The passage of monosaccharides (glucose, aa ) and some electrolytes(Cl-) depends on ________. Why?
Conc gradients
Becoz they are absorbed by simple diffusion
Some substances like __and ___Are absorbed with the help of CARRIER PROTEINS .
Glucose
Amino acids
Glucose is mainly absorbed through the process of -
Facilitated diffusion ( carrier proteins )
Amino acids are mainly absorbed into the blood by -
Facilitated transport (carrier proteins)
Transport of water depends upon the _____ .
Osmotic gradient
Various nutrients like amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose ,electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into the blood by -
Active transport
Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by how many mechanisms -
Passive transport -small amount
Active transport -various
Facilitated -some
Electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into the blood stream by -
Active transport
____and __being insoluble cannot be absorbed into the blood .
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Fatty acids and glycerol (for absorption)are first incorporated into small droplets called _____ which move into the _____.
Micelles
Intestinal mucosa
fatty acids and glycerol are first incorporated into micelles and then RE-FORMED into very small ______ .
Protein coated fat globules -chylomicrons
_______are transported into the lymph vessels (LACTEALS) in the villi .
Chylomicrons
What are chylomicrons ?
Very small protein -coated fat globules
Final products of fatty acids and glycerol , which are transported into lacteals in the villi
Chylomicrons are transported into the _____ in the ____ .
Lymph vessels -lacteals
Villi
Micelles are transported into lacteals .T/F
F
The ___ultimately release the absorbed substances (of chylomicrons {fatty acids and glycerol}) into the _______ .
Lymph vessels
Blood stream
____of substances takes place in diff parts of the alimentary canal like mouth ,stomach, small intestine and large intestine .
Absorption
Maximum absorption takes place in the _____.
Small intestine
Certain drugs coming in contact with the ___of __and _____ of ____ are absorbed into the blood capillaries lining them .
Mucosa Mouth 👄 Lower side Tongue 👅 (some amt of Drugs are absorbed in the mouth )
Alcohol is absorbed in the ____.
Stomach
Absorption of water ,simple sugars and alcohol takes lace here -
Stomach
Principle organ for the ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS is-
Small intestine
The digestion is completed here and the fall products of digestion such as glucose ,fructose ,fatty acids ,glycerol and amino acids are absorbed through the mucosa into the blood stream and lymph -
Small intestine
Absorption of water ,some minerals and drugs takes place here -
Large intestine
The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilise them for their activities . This is called -
Assimilation
The egestion of faeces to the outside through defaecation is a ___process and is carried out by a ___movement .
Voluntary
Mass peristaltic
The __of intestinal tract is the most common ailment due to BACTERIAL or VIRAL infections .
Inflammation
The infection of intestinal tract are also caused by the parasites of intestine like -
Tapeworm Roundworm Threadworm Bookworm Pinworm
In jaundice , the ____is affected .
Liver
In jaundice , the liver is affected , ____ and __turn yellow due to _____.
Skin
Eyes
Deposition of bile pigments
Ejection of __ contents through the mouth is called VOMITING .
Stomach contents
Vomiting is a _____ action controlled by the _____centre in the _____.
Reflex
Vomit centre
Medulla
The abnormal frequency of bowel movements and increased liquidity of faecal discharge is known as ___.
Diarrhoea
______ reduces the absorption of food .
Diarrhoea
In constipation , the faeces are retained within the ____ .
Colon
Why are faeces retained in the colon during constipation ?
As the bowel movements occur irregularly
In ____ , the food is not digested properly leading to a feeling of FULLNESS .
Indigestion
What are the causes of indigestion ?
1) Inadequate enzyme secretion
2) Anxiety
3) Food poisoning
4) Over eating
5) Spicy food
Dietary deficiencies of proteins and total food calories are widespread in many underdeveloped countries of ___,___and ____ .
South and south-east ASIA
South America
West and central Africa
_____ may affect large sections of population during drought , famine and political turmoil .
PEM
PEM happened in ___ during the liberation war and in ___ during the severe drought in MID-EIGHTIES .
Bangladesh 🇧🇩
Ethiopia 🇪🇹
___ is produced by the simultaneous deficiency of proteins and calories .
Marasmus
Marasmus if found in ___ , if mother’s milk is replaced too early by other foods which are poor in both proteins and calorific value .
Infants 👶 -less than a year in age
When is mother’s milk replaced by other foods which ultimately leads to marasmus ?
If the mother has 2nd pregnancy 🤰 or childbirth when the older infant is still too young .
In Marasmus , PROTEIN DEFICIENCY impairs __and ____.
growth
replacement of tissue proteins
What are the symptoms of MARASMUS -
Extreme emancipation of the body
Thinning of limbs
Skin becomes dry ,thin and wrinkled
Growth rate and body weight decline considerably
Growth and development of brain 🧠 and mental faculties are impaired
Kwashiorkor is caused by ___.
Protein deficiency only
Kwashiorkor is caused by _____deficiency unaccompanied by ____ deficiency .
Protein
Calorie
Kwashiorkor is caused in a child _______.
More than one year in age
What is the cause of kwashiorkor ?
Replacement of mother’s milk by HIGH CALORIE -LOW PROTEIN diet in a child less than 1 year .
What are the symptoms of kwashiorkor which are like marasmus -
Wasting of muscles
Thinning of limbs
Failure of growth and brain development
Symptoms of kwashiorkor ,which are unlike marasmus -
Some fat is still left under the skin
Extensive oedema
Swelling of body parts
The digestive glands associated with the alimentary canal include-
Salivary glands
Liver
Pancreas
Saliva is produced by ______of salivary glands .
3 pair
The __ glands are present in the cheek .(salivary )
Parotid
The ____are present in the LOWER JAW .(salivary glands)
Sub-maxillary/ sub-mandibular
The ______are present BELOW THE TONGUE .(salivary glands )
Sub-linguals
Where are the salivary glands situated ? Where do they secrete saliva ?
Just Outside the buccal cavity
Secrete salivary juice into the buccal cavity
_____ is the largest GLAND of the body weighing about _______ in an adult human .
Liver
1.2 -1.5 kg
Location of liver ?
In the abdominal cavity , just below the diaphragm
The liver has __ lobes .
2
The _____are the structural and functional units of liver containing ______ arranged in the form of ______.
Hepatic lobules
Hepatic cells
Cords
Each hepatic lobule is covered by a ________ sheath called ______.
Thin connective tissue sheath
Glisson’s capsule
The bile is secreted by the _____ cells and it passes through the _______ ducts to get stored in the gall bladder .
Hepatic
Hepatic
Bile is ____and ____ in a thin muscular sac -gall bladder .
Stored
Concentrated
The ______ duct along with ____ duct forms the common BILE DUCT .
Duct of gall bladder (CYSTIC DUCT )
Hepatic duct - from liver
The ____and ____duct open together into the DUODENUM as the COMMON ________ duct
Bile duct (common)
Pancreatic duct
Common HEPATO-PANCREATIC duct
The opening of HEPATO-PANCREATIC duct into the _____is guarded by the _____sphincter
Duodenum
Sphincter of ODDI
The pancreas is a _____organ situated btw the ____of the C-shaped duodenum
Compound(both exo and endo )
Limbs
What does the exo and endo crine parts of pancreas secrete -
Exocrine -alkaline pancreatic juice containing enzymes
Endocrine -hormones ,insulin, glucagon
The main functions performed by BUCCAL CAVITY -
2
Mastication of food
Facilitation of swallowing
The __and the ___ with the help of ___ , masticate and mix the food thoroughly .
Teeth 🦷
Tongue 👅
Saliva
MUCUS in SALIVA helps in ___and___ the masticated food particles into a BOLUS .
Lubricating
Adhering
The bolus is conveyed into the pharynx and then into the oesophagus by ___or ____ .
Swallowing
Deglutition
The bolus further passes through the oesophagus by successive waves of ____ called _____.
Muscular contractions
Peristalsis
The ___controls the passage of food into the stomach .
Gastro-oesophageal sphincter
The saliva secreted into the ORAL CAVITY contains ELECTROLYTES like ___,____,___ and __ .
Na +
K+
Cl-
HCO3-
The enzymes contained in SALIVA are -
salivary amylase
Lysozyme
The _____process of digestion is initiated in the oral cavity by the _____ action of salivary amylase .
Hydrolytic
Chemical
Salivary amylase is a _______enzyme whose ______action initiates digestion .
Carbohydrate splitting
Hydrolytic
About _____% of STARCH is hydrolysed in the oral cavity .
30%
Salivary amylase is active at a pH _______ present in the oral cavity.
6.8
Slightly acidic
____present in the saliva acts as an antibacterial agent that prevents infections .
Lysozyme
About 30 % starch is hydrolysed in the oral cavity by salivary amylase (optimum pH6.8 ) into a _____-____ .
Disaccharide
Maltose
The ______of stomach has GASTRIC GLANDS
Mucosa
Gastric glands have how many major types of cells ? Name them -
3
Mucus neck cells.
Peptic/chief cells
Parietal /oxyntic cells
______cells of the gastric gland secrete MUCUS .
Mucus neck cells
Peptic cells of gastric glands of stomach secrete ______ .
Proenzyme pepsinogen
Gastric lipase
Parietal cells of gastric gland in the stomach secrete ____and_____.
HCL Intrinsic factor (responsible for absorption of vit B12)
Proenzyme pepsinogen is secreted by _____ cells .
Peptic / chief
Factor essential for the absorption of B12 is secreted by -
Oxyntic /parietal cells of gastric glands
The stomach stores the food for ______ hours .
4-5
The food mixes thoroughly with the ______ of the stomach by the ____ movement of its ___walls and is called the CHYME .
Acidic gastric juice
Churning
Muscular walls
The _____on exposure to HCL gets converted to the active enzyme PEPSIN of the ______.
Proenzyme pepsinogen
Stomach (pepsin is the active enzyme of the stomach )
Pepsin coverts ___into _and _____.
Proteins
Proteoses
Peptones(peptides)
The ____and _____in the gastric juice play an imp role in lubrication and protection of the mucosal epithelium (from highly conc HCL)
Mucus
Bicarbonates
HCL provides ____ pH optimal for ____.
Acidic =pH 1.8
Pepsins
Rennin is a _____enzyme found in the __of infants which helps in the digestion of milk proteins .
Proteolytic (protein breaking )
Gastric juice
What is the function of mucus and bicarbonates in the GASTRIC JUICE ?
Imp role in lubrication , and protection of the mucosal epithelium from excoriation by the highly conc HCL.
Small amounts of _____are also secreted by the gastric glands .
Lipases
Various types of movements are generated by the ___layer of the small intestines .
Muscularis
The __, ____ and ____are the are the secretions released into the SMALL INTESTINES .
BILE
Pancreatic juice
Intestinal juice
Give a brief account of the process of digestion taking place in the STOMACH -
HCl concerts proenzyme pepsinogen into pepsin
Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses and peptones(peptides )
Rennin is the proteolytic (similar to pepsin ) in infants
Lipases are also present here
____and ___ are released through the HEPATOPANCREATIC DUCT in the small intestines ( duodenum ).
Pancreatic juice
Bile
The pancreatic juice (released into the duodenum ) contains INACTIVE enzymes - ______________
6 Trypinogen Chymotrypsinogen PROCARBOXYPEPTIDASE Amylases Lipases Nucleases
The pancreatic juice has ______enzymes .(active/inactive )
Inactive
_____is activated by an enzyme ENTEROKINASE secreted by ______.
Trypsinogen
Intestinal mucosa
Types in is converted into its active form ,which is ______ (by enterokinase ) which in turn activates other enzymes present in the ______.
Trypsin
Pancreatic juice
(Trypsinogen—->trypsin—>activates other enzymes )
This takes place in the small intestines (duodenum )
ENTEROKINASE is secreted by the ______.
Intestinal mucosa
The bile released into the DUODENUM contains ______,____,____and _____ .
Bile pigments (bilirubin ,biliverdin)
Bile salts
Cholesterol
Phospholipids
Bile secreted into duodenum (through hepaatopancretic duct ) does not contain _____
Enzymes
Bile has no enzymes
Function of bile -
1) Helps in emulsification of fats ( breakdown of fats into small micelles )
2) Activates LIPASES
___activates lipases in the small intestines (duodenum )
Bile
Emulsification of fats is the breakdown of fats into ___
Small micelles
The _________has GOBLET CELLS.
INTESTINAL MUCOSA
In the intestine , __cells secrete mucus , and in the stomach ____cells secrete mucus .
Goblet cells (in the mucosal epithelium of intestines) Mucus neck cells ( in the mucosa of stomach )
The secretions of the brunch-border cells of the mucosa along with the secretions of the GOBLET CELLS constitute ______.
Intestinal juice /succus entericus
What constitutes the intestinal juice/succus entericus ?
Secretions of brush border cells of mucosa +secretions of goblet cells (of mucosa )
Which enzymes does succus entericus contain ?
Variety of enzymes like- Disaccharidases (maltase) Dipeptidases Lipases Nucleosidases
The functions of MUCUS and BICARBONATES in the small intestines -
1) Protect the intestinal mucosa from acid
2) provide an alkaline medium (pH 7.8)for enzymatic activities
The bicarbonates released into the small intestines ( to provide alkalinity ) are from -
Pancreas
Which pH does mucus and bicarbonates provide in the small intestines ?
Alkaline - pH 7.8
____ ,____and __ provide the intestinal mucosa from acid and also provide alkalinity (pH7.8) .
MUCUS
Bicarbonates
BRUNNER’S GLAND (sub-mucosal )
A SUB-MUCOSAL gland which functions along with mucus and bicarbonates -
BRUNNER’S gland
____,__and __Are partially hydrolysed proteins in the chyme .
Proteins
Proteoses
Peptones
Partially hydrolysed proteins reaching the small intestines are acted upon by the _____enzymes of _____.
Proteolytic enzymes (protein breaking ) PANCREATIC JUICE 🥤
Partially hydrolysed proteins (proteins ,proteoses and peptones ) are converted to ____ in the ______ .
diPeptides
Small intestines
Proteins ,peptones and proteoses are converted to diPeptides in the small intestine by the action of which enzymes ?
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
CARBOXYPEPTIDASE
(1st of all , enterokinase converted trypsinogen into active trypsin , thin trypsin further converted chymotyrpsinogen and procarboxypeptidase into ACTIVE chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase )
Carbohydrates in the chyme are hydrolysed by ________ into _____.
Pancreatic amylase
Disaccharides
(In the small intestines )
In the __,fats are broken down by ___with the help of ___ into DI and MONO -GLYCERIDES .
Small intestines
Lipases
Bile
Is any amount of fat digested in the stomach also ?
Lipases are present in the stomach, but not bile
So maybe some of it is partially hydrolysed*
Fats are broken down into __and ___ in the small intestines .
Di-glycerides
Mono-glycerides
(By the action of lipase along with bile )
What role does AMYLASE play in the small intestines ?
It converts polysaccharides(starch) into disaccharides (maltose )
It plays almost the same role as it does in the mouth
______ in the pancreatic juice act on NUCLEIC ACIDS to form _____and _____ .(in small intestines )
Nucleases
Nucleotides
Nucleosides
Does the small intestine secrete any enzyme or al enzymes i it come from pancreas ?
Both
Intestinal juice And Pancreatic juice both act in the small intestines
(After the pancreatic juices have acted on the chyme , the succus entericus plays its part and acts on the breakdown products of the enzymes of pancreatic juices )
The enzymes in the ______ act on the end products of the rxns catalysed by pancreatic enzymes (amylase ,lipase ,nucleases ,trypsin ,chymotypsin and carboxypaptidase )to form the respective simple ___forms .
Succus entericus
Absorbable
What are the final steps in digestion ?
Rxns catalysed by enzymes of succus entericus (dipeptidase , maltase , lactase , nucleotidases ,nucleosidases ,sucrose ,lactase
The final steps in digestion occur very close to the ______ of the _____ .
Mucosal epithelial cells
Intestine
The breakdown of the BIOMACROMOLECULES ( by the enzymes of the succus entericus , the final steps of digestion ) occur in the ___region of the small intestines .
Duodenum
The simple substances formed in the last steps of digestion in the duodenum region are absorbed in the ____and ____ regions of the small intestines .
Jejunum
Ileum
In the final steps of digestion (in duodenum) , DIPEPTIDES are converted to _____by ___ .
Amino acids
Dipeptidases (ofsuccus entericus )
Maltose(disaccharide )formed from starch (polysaccharide ) is converted to ________ by _____ in the last step .
Glucose+glucose
Maltase ( of succus entericus )
Lactose is converted to __ and ___ by the action of enzymes of_____.
Glucose
Galactose
Intestinal juice ( succus entericus )—- lactase
Sucrose left is finally converted to _____and ____ by ____.
Glucose
Fructose
Sucrase (of succus entericus )
In the final steps of digestion occurring in the duodenum , NUCLEOTIDES are converted to ______ by ______ , which are in turn converted to ____ by______.
Nucleosides
Nucleotidases
Sugars+bases
Nucleosidases
The final product of nucleic acids is -
Sugars + bases
Nucleic acids ————>nucleotides and nucleosides (pancreatic juice-nucleases )
Nucleotides ————> nucleosides——> sugars+bases (intestinal juice -nucleotidases,nucleosidases)
No significant digestive activity occurs in the large intestines .T/F
T
Functions of large intestines -
1) absorption of some water , minerals and certain drugs
2) secretion of mucus (which helps in adhering the waste-undigested together and lubrications it for easy passage )
Drugs are absorbed in the -
Large intestines
The undigested , unabsorbed substances enter into the CAECUM through the ______which prevents back flow of faecal matter .
ILeo-caecal VALVE
The faecal matter are temporarily stored in the _____till defaecation .
Rectum
The activities of GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT are under __and ___control for proper coordination .
Hormonal
Neural
the muscular movements of diff parts of the alimentary canal can also be moderated by NEURAL MECHANISM ,both _____and through ___.
Local
CNS
Hormonal control of the secretion of digestive juices is carried out by ____hormones produced by ___ and ____ .
Local
Gastric mucosa
Intestinal mucosa
The sight ,smell or the presence of food in ORAL CAVITY can stimulate the secretion of saliva .T/F
T
Under neural control , similar to gastric and intestinal secretions
Gross calorific value of carbs-
4.1 kcal/g
Gross calorific value of proteins -
5.65 kcal/g
Gross calorific value of fats -
9.45 kcal/g
Physiological value of carbs -
4 kcal/g
Physiological value of proteins -
4.0 kcal/g
Physiological value of fats-
9.0 kcal/g
Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion pass through the ______into the ____or____ .
Intestinal mucosa
Blood
Lymph
Absorption of food is carried out by __,___ or ____ mechanisms .
Active transport
Passive transport
Facilitated transport
SMALL AMOUNTS of monosaccharides ,like GLUCOSE ,AMINO ACIDS and some electrolytes (like CHLORIDE IONS ) are generally absorbed by -
Simple diffusion *
The passage of monosaccharides (glucose, aa ) and some electrolytes(Cl-) depends on ________. Why?
Conc gradients
Becoz they are absorbed by simple diffusion
Some substances like __and ___Are absorbed with the help of CARRIER PROTEINS .
Glucose
Amino acids
Glucose is mainly absorbed through the process of -
Facilitated diffusion ( carrier proteins )
Amino acids are mainly absorbed into the blood by -
Facilitated transport (carrier proteins)
Transport of water depends upon the _____ .
Osmotic gradient
Various nutrients like amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose ,electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into the blood by -
Active transport
Glucose and amino acids are absorbed by how many mechanisms -
Passive transport -small amount
Active transport -various
Facilitated -some
Electrolytes like Na+ are absorbed into the blood stream by -
Active transport
____and __being insoluble cannot be absorbed into the blood .
Fatty acids
Glycerol
Fatty acids and glycerol (for absorption)are first incorporated into small droplets called _____ which move into the _____.
Micelles
Intestinal mucosa
fatty acids and glycerol are first incorporated into micelles and then RE-FORMED into very small ______ .
Protein coated fat globules -chylomicrons
_______are transported into the lymph vessels (LACTEALS) in the villi .
Chylomicrons
What are chylomicrons ?
Very small protein -coated fat globules
Final products of fatty acids and glycerol , which are transported into lacteals in the villi
Chylomicrons are transported into the _____ in the ____ .
Lymph vessels -lacteals
Villi
Micelles are transported into lacteals .T/F
F
The ___ultimately release the absorbed substances (of chylomicrons {fatty acids and glycerol}) into the _______ .
Lymph vessels
Blood stream
____of substances takes place in diff parts of the alimentary canal like mouth ,stomach, small intestine and large intestine .
Absorption
Maximum absorption takes place in the _____.
Small intestine
Certain drugs coming in contact with the ___of __and _____ of ____ are absorbed into the blood capillaries lining them .
Mucosa Mouth 👄 Lower side Tongue 👅 (some amt of Drugs are absorbed in the mouth )
Alcohol is absorbed in the ____.
Stomach
Absorption of water ,simple sugars and alcohol takes lace here -
Stomach
Principle organ for the ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS is-
Small intestine
The digestion is completed here and the fall products of digestion such as glucose ,fructose ,fatty acids ,glycerol and amino acids are absorbed through the mucosa into the blood stream and lymph -
Small intestine
Absorption of water ,some minerals and drugs takes place here -
Large intestine
The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilise them for their activities . This is called -
Assimilation
The egestion of faeces to the outside through defaecation is a ___process and is carried out by a ___movement .
Voluntary
Mass peristaltic
The __of intestinal tract is the most common ailment due to BACTERIAL or VIRAL infections .
Inflammation
The infection of intestinal tract are also caused by the parasites of intestine like -
Tapeworm Roundworm Threadworm Bookworm Pinworm
In jaundice , the ____is affected .
Liver
In jaundice , the liver is affected , ____ and __turn yellow due to _____.
Skin
Eyes
Deposition of bile pigments
Ejection of __ contents through the mouth is called VOMITING .
Stomach contents
Vomiting is a _____ action controlled by the _____centre in the _____.
Reflex
Vomit centre
Medulla
The abnormal frequency of bowel movements and increased liquidity of faecal discharge is known as ___.
Diarrhoea
______ reduces the absorption of food .
Diarrhoea
In constipation , the faeces are retained within the ____ .
Colon
Why are faeces retained in the colon during constipation ?
As the bowel movements occur irregularly
In ____ , the food is not digested properly leading to a feeling of FULLNESS .
Indigestion
What are the causes of indigestion ?
1) Inadequate enzyme secretion
2) Anxiety
3) Food poisoning
4) Over eating
5) Spicy food
Dietary deficiencies of proteins and total food calories are widespread in many underdeveloped countries of ___,___and ____ .
South and south-east ASIA
South America
West and central Africa
_____ may affect large sections of population during drought , famine and political turmoil .
PEM
PEM happened in ___ during the liberation war and in ___ during the severe drought in MID-EIGHTIES .
Bangladesh 🇧🇩
Ethiopia 🇪🇹
___ is produced by the simultaneous deficiency of proteins and calories .
Marasmus
Marasmus if found in ___ , if mother’s milk is replaced too early by other foods which are poor in both proteins and calorific value .
Infants 👶 -less than a year in age
When is mother’s milk replaced by other foods which ultimately leads to marasmus ?
If the mother has 2nd pregnancy 🤰 or childbirth when the older infant is still too young .
In Marasmus , PROTEIN DEFICIENCY impairs __and ____.
growth
replacement of tissue proteins
What are the symptoms of MARASMUS -
Extreme emancipation of the body
Thinning of limbs
Skin becomes dry ,thin and wrinkled
Growth rate and body weight decline considerably
Growth and development of brain 🧠 and mental faculties are impaired
Kwashiorkor is caused by ___.
Protein deficiency only
Kwashiorkor is caused by _____deficiency unaccompanied by ____ deficiency .
Protein
Calorie
Kwashiorkor is caused in a child _______.
More than one year in age
What is the cause of kwashiorkor ?
Replacement of mother’s milk by HIGH CALORIE -LOW PROTEIN diet in a child less than 1 year .
What are the symptoms of kwashiorkor which are like marasmus -
Wasting of muscles
Thinning of limbs
Failure of growth and brain development
Symptoms of kwashiorkor ,which are unlike marasmus -
Some fat is still left under the skin
Extensive oedema
Swelling of body parts
