dezvoltarea sexului, etnie si prejudecari Flashcards
what is sex
biological and physical attributes
XX chromosome - female
XY - male
what is gender
masculine or feminine behaviour
what is gender-typing
culturally assigned role
e.g. women in the kitchen
what are gender stereotypes
over generalisation of a set of characteristics to a whole gender group
what are personality differences
men - active, dominant, aggressive, arrogant, independent
women - passive, emotional, submissive, fearful
are these cultural stereotypes
what are cognitive differences
boys are supposed to be better than girls at maths
boys have superior spatial abilities to girls?
girls have better verbal abilities than boys?
are there stereotypical expectations? is there stereotype threat?
what is gender similarities hypothesis
overlap in abilities is often greater than difference
it’s just that the average might be higher for males
other factors other than gender explain most variation in abilities
what is gender difference in playmate choice
gender segregation in children’s play groupings is evidence from 3yo
during mid and late childhood, same sex preference increases
what is observational study of affiliative behaviour in a day care centre
children aged between 18m and 5yo showed that the percentage of same sex-affiliative acts increased with age
younger children - little gender segregation
By 24m girls are already showing gender preferences (2x the no. of affiliative acts to girls compared to boys)
By 3y boys have caught up
Both continue to show marked own-gender preferences in playmate choice
what are gender differences in behaviour and activities in terms of toys
gender differences in toy preference are well-known and appear early
toddlers prefer to look at gender-appropriate toys
boys’ interest in stereotypes toys remains consistent (5-13y)
girls show a decrease interest with age
why might young boys and girls show such gender typed behaviours and activities
theories of gender role development:
- biological accounts
- social learning theory
- cognitive developmental theories
what are biological accounts
evolutionary principle
gender roles serve the survival of the species
Sociobiologists - developed through human evolution to make us adaptive to the environment
Males and fem developed differently as a function of their respective contributions to reproduction
what is the roles of hormones according to biological accounts
hormones: prenatal and pubertal developmental effects
prenatal: fetal testosterone determines anatomic sex
puberty: increase in hormone activity
Girls exposed prenatally to androgens show more masculine behaviour
what is social learning theory
gender differences are product of external pressures in the local environment
sex role learning is the outcome of a series of learning experiences within a specific socio-cultural environment
what is the early vision in social learning theory
early vision - socialisation agents (parents) convey repetitive messages about appropriate sex roles which the child assimilates
what is the socialisation process of the social learning theory
reinforcement and observational learning reinforce sex roles
what are cognitive developmental theories
conceptual understanding increases motivation to seek out information about their gender tole in society
Gender concepts appears in the 2nd + year
Gender identity: able to label self and other as either male or female
Gender stability: realisation that a person’s sex remains constant throughout life
Gender consistency - understanding that sex does not change despite modifications to external cues that normally signify identification
what is gender-schema thoery
-an information-processing approach
-children develop schemas
-gender identities affects gender attitudes and subsequent behaviours
-gender-role schemas alter the ways that children process/recall social information
how was gender schema theory investigated
Shown gender-consistent or inconsistent activities (boy playing with train ; girls sawing wood)
1 week later: children remember inconsistent pictures as gender consistent
Memory codes new information into existing schemas
Schemas altered the way children recalled info
what is family socialisation
Showed a group of adults a videotape of a 9m infant introduced as a boy or a girl
Child was seen responding to emotion arousing objects (JACK in a box)
Child’s responses were described as either anger if the infant was seen as a boy or fear if seen as a girl
ALSO
By dressing the sexes differently, we establish sex-types physical environments, encourage and reinforce different activities in sexes
what is the role of peers
peer pressure is important in determining gender tole development
Peers are more alert to cross-sex behaviours than parents - boy is more likely than parents to make fun of another boy for crying
what is the role of siblings
Attitudes, behaviours and choices of older siblings predicted those of younger siblings’ gender-typing
how is ethnic identity in the early years
3-5 yo show little evidence of an ethnic identity
what is ethnic constancy
ethnic constancy (EC) comes later than gender constancy
7-9yo in white children
ethnic constancy appears later in minority status children - if you are in school where there are no people if your group then you don’t have the opportunities to form those bonds
what are the 4 levels of understanding ethnic identity
Level 1: 3-6y
racial and ethnic differences physical only - you are in this group based on physical
Level 2: 6-10y
-more abstract and concrete aspects
-ethnic differences in concrete cultural practices e.g. food
Level 3: 10-14y
-recognition of broader implications of ethnic group, broader differences
-desire to be close to fellow group members
Level 4: over 14
- pride in racial heritage
what are critique of these 4 levels
according to this children under 10 view ethnic groups in terms of physical characters
ethnic identity has a protective value?
ethnic identity protects 9th grade mexican and chinese US children from negative effects of everyday stress
if you had high ethnic regard group report higher happiness
as stressful demands increase, there is increase in happiness
having a high ethnic regard - strong ethnic identification- comes with stronger social ties, more integration, feelings of connectedness
ethnic identity in adolescence
Stage 1: unexplored ethnic identity
Stage 2: ethnic identity search and exploration
Stage 3: achieved ethnic identity
Unclear how adolescents progress through these stages - may move between them, revisit stages
how do we measure ethnic identity
4 components:
- ethnic behaviours and practices: involvement in social activities with members of one’s group and participation in cultural traditions
- affirmation and belonging: being happy with one’s group, feeling of belonging and attachment
- ethnic identity achievement: exploration of the meaning of one’s ethnicity and what it means on an individual level - cultural history
- attitude towards other groups: how you feel about out groups
developmental trends in these measures
college students vs high school students to see if there is changes between these groups
no change in affirmation and belonging or ethnic behaviours
but significant increase in ethnic identity achievement - as we age we feel more grounded in our ethnic identity
affirmation and belonging, ethnic behaviours and ethnic identity achievement correlated
little relationship with out group attitudes - having a sense of belonging to an in group doesn’t necessarily correlate with your attitudes toward an out group
how was extrinsic prejudice measured
Doll test
presented children with identical dolls except the skin colour
Which would you play with
Which is the nice doll
Which looks bad
Early 1960s
Asked white and black american children
Both groups gave positive attributes to white doll and negative to the black doll
This peaked at 5 but declined in the later years
By late 60s
Both white and black showed in group preferences
how was intrinsic prejudice measured
Is it all right for a white child to exclude a black child from a sleep over party due to Race or Parental Discomfort
When q. is worded with word race, children said no
where does prejudice come from
prejudice is heritable but that doesnt mean its biological - doesnt mean we have evolved to be prejudiced
babies need to have a conceptual framework of what is good and bad - level of cognitive development
cognitive development theory
changes in cognitive maturity drive process of prejudice development - you have to have the ability to think in a prejudice way
when children are cognitively immature they rely on either perceptual features or social categories to make sense of social world
only with cognitive development do children begin to process multiple categories and appreciate the internal qualities of an individual (prejudice decreases)
