dezvoltarea sexului, etnie si prejudecari

Question 1

what is sex

Answer 1

biological and physical attributes

XX chromosome - female
XY - male

Question 2

what is gender

Answer 2

masculine or feminine behaviour

Question 3

what is gender-typing

Answer 3

culturally assigned role
e.g. women in the kitchen

Question 4

what are gender stereotypes

Answer 4

over generalisation of a set of characteristics to a whole gender group

Question 5

what are personality differences

Answer 5

men - active, dominant, aggressive, arrogant, independent

women - passive, emotional, submissive, fearful

are these cultural stereotypes

Question 6

what are cognitive differences

Answer 6

boys are supposed to be better than girls at maths

boys have superior spatial abilities to girls?

girls have better verbal abilities than boys?

are there stereotypical expectations? is there stereotype threat?

Question 7

what is gender similarities hypothesis

Answer 7

overlap in abilities is often greater than difference
it’s just that the average might be higher for males

other factors other than gender explain most variation in abilities

Question 8

what is gender difference in playmate choice

Answer 8

gender segregation in children’s play groupings is evidence from 3yo

during mid and late childhood, same sex preference increases

Question 9

what is observational study of affiliative behaviour in a day care centre

Answer 9

children aged between 18m and 5yo showed that the percentage of same sex-affiliative acts increased with age

younger children - little gender segregation

By 24m girls are already showing gender preferences (2x the no. of affiliative acts to girls compared to boys)

By 3y boys have caught up

Both continue to show marked own-gender preferences in playmate choice

Question 10

what are gender differences in behaviour and activities in terms of toys

Answer 10

gender differences in toy preference are well-known and appear early

toddlers prefer to look at gender-appropriate toys

boys’ interest in stereotypes toys remains consistent (5-13y)

girls show a decrease interest with age

Question 11

why might young boys and girls show such gender typed behaviours and activities

Answer 11

theories of gender role development:

• biological accounts
• social learning theory
• cognitive developmental theories

Question 12

what are biological accounts

Answer 12

evolutionary principle
gender roles serve the survival of the species

Sociobiologists - developed through human evolution to make us adaptive to the environment
Males and fem developed differently as a function of their respective contributions to reproduction

Question 13

what is the roles of hormones according to biological accounts

Answer 13

hormones: prenatal and pubertal developmental effects

prenatal: fetal testosterone determines anatomic sex

puberty: increase in hormone activity

Girls exposed prenatally to androgens show more masculine behaviour

Question 14

what is social learning theory

Answer 14

gender differences are product of external pressures in the local environment

sex role learning is the outcome of a series of learning experiences within a specific socio-cultural environment

Question 15

what is the early vision in social learning theory

Answer 15

early vision - socialisation agents (parents) convey repetitive messages about appropriate sex roles which the child assimilates

Question 16

what is the socialisation process of the social learning theory

Answer 16

reinforcement and observational learning reinforce sex roles

Question 17

what are cognitive developmental theories

Answer 17

conceptual understanding increases motivation to seek out information about their gender tole in society

Gender concepts appears in the 2nd + year
Gender identity: able to label self and other as either male or female

Gender stability: realisation that a person’s sex remains constant throughout life

Gender consistency - understanding that sex does not change despite modifications to external cues that normally signify identification

Question 18

what is gender-schema thoery

Answer 18

-an information-processing approach
-children develop schemas
-gender identities affects gender attitudes and subsequent behaviours
-gender-role schemas alter the ways that children process/recall social information

Question 19

how was gender schema theory investigated

Answer 19

Shown gender-consistent or inconsistent activities (boy playing with train ; girls sawing wood)

1 week later: children remember inconsistent pictures as gender consistent

Memory codes new information into existing schemas

Schemas altered the way children recalled info

Question 20

what is family socialisation

Answer 20

Showed a group of adults a videotape of a 9m infant introduced as a boy or a girl

Child was seen responding to emotion arousing objects (JACK in a box)

Child’s responses were described as either anger if the infant was seen as a boy or fear if seen as a girl

ALSO
By dressing the sexes differently, we establish sex-types physical environments, encourage and reinforce different activities in sexes

Question 21

what is the role of peers

Answer 21

peer pressure is important in determining gender tole development

Peers are more alert to cross-sex behaviours than parents - boy is more likely than parents to make fun of another boy for crying

Question 22

what is the role of siblings

Answer 22

Attitudes, behaviours and choices of older siblings predicted those of younger siblings’ gender-typing

Question 23

how is ethnic identity in the early years

Answer 23

3-5 yo show little evidence of an ethnic identity

Question 24

what is ethnic constancy

Answer 24

ethnic constancy (EC) comes later than gender constancy
7-9yo in white children

ethnic constancy appears later in minority status children - if you are in school where there are no people if your group then you don’t have the opportunities to form those bonds

Question 25

what are the 4 levels of understanding ethnic identity

Answer 25

Level 1: 3-6y
racial and ethnic differences physical only - you are in this group based on physical

Level 2: 6-10y
-more abstract and concrete aspects
-ethnic differences in concrete cultural practices e.g. food

Level 3: 10-14y
-recognition of broader implications of ethnic group, broader differences
-desire to be close to fellow group members

Level 4: over 14
- pride in racial heritage

Question 26

what are critique of these 4 levels

Answer 26

according to this children under 10 view ethnic groups in terms of physical characters

Question 27

ethnic identity has a protective value?

Answer 27

ethnic identity protects 9th grade mexican and chinese US children from negative effects of everyday stress

if you had high ethnic regard group report higher happiness

as stressful demands increase, there is increase in happiness

having a high ethnic regard - strong ethnic identification- comes with stronger social ties, more integration, feelings of connectedness

Question 28

ethnic identity in adolescence

Answer 28

Stage 1: unexplored ethnic identity

Stage 2: ethnic identity search and exploration

Stage 3: achieved ethnic identity

Unclear how adolescents progress through these stages - may move between them, revisit stages

Question 29

how do we measure ethnic identity

Answer 29

4 components:

• ethnic behaviours and practices: involvement in social activities with members of one’s group and participation in cultural traditions
• affirmation and belonging: being happy with one’s group, feeling of belonging and attachment
• ethnic identity achievement: exploration of the meaning of one’s ethnicity and what it means on an individual level - cultural history
• attitude towards other groups: how you feel about out groups

Question 30

developmental trends in these measures

Answer 30

college students vs high school students to see if there is changes between these groups

no change in affirmation and belonging or ethnic behaviours

but significant increase in ethnic identity achievement - as we age we feel more grounded in our ethnic identity

affirmation and belonging, ethnic behaviours and ethnic identity achievement correlated

little relationship with out group attitudes - having a sense of belonging to an in group doesn’t necessarily correlate with your attitudes toward an out group

Question 31

how was extrinsic prejudice measured

Answer 31

Doll test
presented children with identical dolls except the skin colour

Which would you play with
Which is the nice doll
Which looks bad

Early 1960s
Asked white and black american children
Both groups gave positive attributes to white doll and negative to the black doll
This peaked at 5 but declined in the later years

By late 60s
Both white and black showed in group preferences

Question 32

how was intrinsic prejudice measured

Answer 32

Is it all right for a white child to exclude a black child from a sleep over party due to Race or Parental Discomfort

When q. is worded with word race, children said no

Question 33

where does prejudice come from

Answer 33

prejudice is heritable but that doesnt mean its biological - doesnt mean we have evolved to be prejudiced

babies need to have a conceptual framework of what is good and bad - level of cognitive development

Question 34

cognitive development theory

Answer 34

changes in cognitive maturity drive process of prejudice development - you have to have the ability to think in a prejudice way

when children are cognitively immature they rely on either perceptual features or social categories to make sense of social world

only with cognitive development do children begin to process multiple categories and appreciate the internal qualities of an individual (prejudice decreases)