Developmental chapter 6 (Sensation, Perception, and Action)

Question 1

Perspectives on Perception: Constructivists

Answer 1

• They side with nurture (poeple learn and grow by interacting with the world around them)
• perceptions of the world are constructed over time through learning

Question 2

Perspectives on Perception: Nativists

Answer 2

• they side with nature (people are born with certain abilities and knowledge)
• the brain automatically understands the
  meanings of different retinal images
• perception doesn’t require an interpretation based on prior experience

Question 3

Main methods used to study infants

Answer 3

(1) Habituation:
- We present them a stimuli repetedly until they habituate (get used to) or get bored

(2) Preferential looking:
- Present 2 visual stimuli side by side and measure looking time for each stimulus, if the infant looks longer at one stimulus, it means they can differentiate between them

(3) Evoked potentials:
- record electrical brain activity in different areas of the brain while the infant is exposed to stimuli

(4) operant conditioning:
- The infant is conditioned to react a certain way to a stimulus through reinforcement
- change stimulus and if they react the same, they DON’T perceive a difference

Question 3

Gibson’s ecological model

Answer 3

• information essential for perception is readily and directly available in the environment, we learn to see and understand the world by interacting with our environment

Question 4

Visual acuity

Answer 4

How clearly you can see things, especially details, when looking at objects

Question 5

Vision of infants

Answer 5

• It is 40 times worse than an adults but improves in the first month of life
• At 4 months, infants can differentiate colors and categorize similar colors

Question 6

Form perception (process)

Answer 6

The process whereby the brain interprets the shapes, patterns, and designs of visual stimuli to create a meaningful perceptual experience

Question 7

Infant vision development (by month)

Answer 7

(1 month-old)
→ focus on contours (boundaries) of objects
→ tendency for gaze to remain ‘stuck’ on the object

(2 months-old)
→ explore interiors of objects thoroughly
→ get better at shifting attention from one object to another

(4 months-old)
→ expect all parts of an object to move in the same direction at the same time
→ use common motion to determine what’s part of an object

Question 7

Patterns in which infants show prefrense

Answer 7

• High contrast contours (differences in color)
• Dynamic or containing movement
• Moderately complex

Question 8

Face perception of newborns

Answer 8

• They can distinguish a human face from a monkey but don’t show preference for humans
• Can recognize their mother (at least in simplified displays)
• Preference for patterns with more information in the upper visual field

Question 8

Developemnt of newborns depth perception

Answer 8

(2 months-old):
- They perceive depth but haven’t learned to fear drop-offs yet

(4 months-old):
- understanding of “size consistency” (object is same size despite changes in distance from the eyes)

(7 months-old and +):
- clearly perceive depth and fear drop-offs

Question 9

Intuitive theories

Answer 9

Innate knowledge about the world THAt shape perception and learning

Question 10

Hearing of newborns

Answer 10

• newborns can hear well and localize sounds
• prenatal auditory experiences can shape the neural architecture of the brain

Question 10

Speech perception of newborns

Answer 10

• young infants are especially responsive and show preference for speech sounds
• newborns begin life, ready to learn any language
• fetuses can differentiate their mother’s voice from a stranger’s (due to hearing it during the prenental stage)

Question 11

Taste and Smell of newborns

Answer 11

• can distinguish: sweet, bitter, and sour
• show preference for sweet tastes
• basic tastes are innate (inborn) but more complex flavor perception is learned
• olfaction (smell) works good at birth

Question 12

Sensitive period of newborns

Answer 12

The first 4-6 months of age where exposure to certain tastes can influence later acceptance of it

Question 13

Somaesthetic Senses and notes

Answer 13

touch, temperature, pressure, kinesthetic sense

• tactile stimulation (sensing touch through our skin) develops in the cephalocaudal direction
• pain is responsive to learning

Question 14

Early Perceptual Development

Answer 14

the visual system requires stimulation early in life to develop normally. the first 3 months are critical for later sensitivity to detail and holistic face processing (how our brains recognize and understand faces by looking at them as a whole)
↳ same principle applies to hearing

Question 15

Locomotion and notes

Answer 15

It’s all about how we use our bodies to get around, like walking, running, crawling, or even swimming.

• the young child must learn to integrate perception with action in order to move effectively
• Early motor development follows the cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles of growth

Question 16

Vision for the Child

Answer 16

Visual acuity improves to adult levels between 4 and 6 years

Question 17

Gross motor skills (developed during childhood)

Answer 17

Ability to use large muscle groups to perform movements and action

Acquired before: Fine motor skills

Question 18

Fine motor skills (developed during childhood)

Answer 18

Ability to use small muscle groups for precise movements and actions

Acquired after: Fine motor skills

Question 19

Dynamic (action) systems theory

Answer 19

The idea that complex motor behaviors emerge over time through a SELF-OGRANIZING process. This is beacuse children adapt their motor behavior based on their environment

Question 20

(babies) Rhythmic stereotypies

Answer 20

repetitive movements that some babies and young children make, usually as a way to explore their bodies or their environment

• young toddlers can adjust their walking to changes in their body dimensions (ex: weight) and the slope of a walkway
• falling while walking, helps children learn which surfaces are safe and which are problematic
• can walk and run in a straight line but can’t easily stop or turn while running

Question 21

The child: orienting system

Answer 21

helps an individual react to the environment

Question 22

The child: focusing system

Answer 22

Helps maintain focus on a particular task (selective attention)

Question 23

The 3 things that change as Children get order

Answer 23

(1) longer attention span (Between 5 - 10 years)

(2) more selective attention (Between 3½ - 4 years)

(3) more systematic attention / plan and carry systematic investigations (Between 6+ years)

Question 24

Adolescent: Attention

Answer 24

• improved ability to sustain attention due to increased myelination in brain areas involved in attention
• Better able to switch attention from one task to another and:
  ↳ Ignore irrelevant information
  ↳ Divide attention more systematically
• Many adolescents engage in multitasking which decreases academic performance

Question 25

Adolescent: Hearing

Answer 25

Visual acuity can become compromised when listening to music on high volumes

Question 26

Tinnitus

Answer 26

Condition. Most common outcome of 𝐧𝐨𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 , that results into constant ringing sound

Question 27

Adolescent: Taste

Answer 27

• slight decline in preference for sweets and increase for sour tastes
• Begins experimenting with foods

Question 28

Adolescent: Smell (men and women)

Answer 28

• women have greater sensitivity to smell
• Both men and women say that odor is important for selecting a partner

Question 29

The Adult: Sensory thresholds

Answer 29

The minimum levels of stimulus (like light, sound, touch, taste, or smell) that our senses need to detect something. It raise with age and stimulation below the threshold can’t be detected

Question 30

Type of vision problems for adults

Answer 30

Pupil → less responsive to changes in lighting conditions and to dim light

lens → cataract and presbyopia

retina → age-related macular , degeneration (AMD), retinitis pigmentosa (RP)

eyeball → glaucoma

Question 30

Adults: Hearing

Answer 30

• hearing reduction (3 times as prevalent as visual impairment)
• Hair cells and sensory neurons degenerate gradually. This leads to loss of sensitivity to high-pitched sounds (presbycusis)
• Older adults have more difficulty understanding conversation than young adults but they are able to use contextual cues to interpret what they hear

Question 31

Chemical Senses of Adults

Answer 31

• general decline in sensitivity to taste
• produce less saliva
• the ability to perceive odors also decreases with age
  ↳ serious loss of smell impairs quality of life and enjoyment of food

Question 32

Adults: Somaesthetic Senses

Answer 32

• touch detection threshold increases and sensitivity is gradually lost
• sensitivity to temperature changes decreases
• sensitivity to pain is not lost

(the senses that help us feel and understand what’s happening to our bodies)

Question 33

cross-modal perception

Answer 33

the ability to integrate and coordinate information from multiple. Sensory systems (ex: vision, sound) to form a coherent perception of the world