Definitions for final test. Flashcards
Learned associations
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequence.
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; Pavlov’s dog experiment.
Exctinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response; in classical conditioning, a US response that doesn’t follow a CS. In operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.
Generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any even that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Operant conditioning
A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.
Shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Reinforcer schedules
A pattern that defines how often the desired response will be reinforced.
Continuous reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Fixed ratio schedule
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Variable ratio schedule
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
Fixed interval schedule
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only a specified time has elapsed.
Variable interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Punishment
An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
Observational learning
Learning by observing others.
Mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform specific tasks, and fire when watching others performing these tasks
Pro social behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior.
Vicarious punishment
Vicarious punishment occurs when watching others get in trouble for certain behaviors and learning from their punishments.
Recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill in the blank test.
Recognition
A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
Ebbinghaus’ retention curve
Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the less time he required to relearn it on day 2. Speed of learning is one measure of memory retention.
Encoding
The process of getting information into the memory system
For example, by extracting memory.
Storage
The process of retaining encoded information over time.
Retrieval
The process of getting information out of memory storage.
Sensory memory
The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Short-term memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.
Long-term memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storage house of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Explicit memory
Retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” , and is also known as declarative memory
Implicit memory
Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection, and is also known as non-declarative memory.
Effortful processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Automatic processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information such as word meanings.
Iconic memory
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; it only lasts a few tenths of a second.
Echoic memory
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli, that only lasts 3-4 seconds.
Mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Ex- Roy B Biv - to remember all the colors of the rainbow.
And BEDMAS
Deep processing
Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
Shallow processing
Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories - of facts and events - for storage.
Cerebellum
Plays an important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning - implicit memories.
Basal Ganglia
Help form memories for physical skills (riding a bike) - implicit memories.
Amygdala
Excitement or stress triggers hormone production and provokes the amygdala to engage memory.
Flash bulb memories
Flashbulb memories are emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsals. Important life-changing memories - 911, the birth of a child, and many more.
Proactive
The forward acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.
Retro active
The backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.
Misinformation
A memory corrupted by misleading information.
Context-dependent memory
Putting yourself in the context of the memory can prime memory retrieval (chewing gum)
State-dependent memory.
Recall best in the same state as when information is learned.
Prototype
A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories.
Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone - use of heuristics.
Heuristic
A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and to solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm.
Insight
A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
Confirmation bias
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
Fixation
In thinking, the ability to see a problem from a new perspective; and obstacle for problem-solving.
Mental set
A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
Intuition
An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
Representativeness heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
Availability heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.
Over confidence
The tendency to be more confident than correct - to over estimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements.
Framing
Framing sways decisions and judgements by influencing the way an issue is posed. It can also influence beneficial decisions.
Nudge
Helps people make better choices for themselves without restricting their freedom of choice.
Divergent thinking
Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.
Convergent thinking
Narrowing the available problem solving solutions to determine the single best option.
Phonemes
In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. An example is the T in words like cat, water, tip, stop, and etc.
Morphemes
In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (such as PRE—-FIX)
Semantics
Deriving meaning from sounds
Broca’s area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke’s area
Controls language reception - a part of the brain involved in language comprehension and expression; usually the left temporal lobe.
Linguistic determinism
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
What are the 7 dwarfs names?
Doc, Bashful, Happy, Grumpy, Dopey, Sleepy, Sneezy.
