Chapter 1 Flashcards
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.(also known as the I knew it all along phenomenon)
How does our everyday thinking sometimes lead us to a wrong conclusion?
Having a hindsight bias, being overconfident and perceiving order in random events.
Why, after friends start dating, do we often feel that we knew they were meant to be together?
We often suffer from a hindsight bias.
What are the three ingredients to a scientific attitude?
Curiosity, skepticism, and humility.
What’s the definition of a theory?
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Operational Definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.
How do theories advance psychological science?
They organize observations, and generate hypotheses, and can also confirm, reject, or revise theories.
What does a good theory do?
organize observed facts, implies hypotheses that offer testable predictions and, sometimes, practical observations; it also stimulates further research.
Why is replication important?
To confirm results in studies and help be more confident of its reliability.
Case study
A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Naturalistic observation
A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in its natural state without trying to control and manipulate the situation.
We cannot assume that case studies always reveal general principles that apply to all of us. Why not?
Case studies involve only one individual or group, so we cant know fore sure whether the principles observed would apply to a macro perspective.
What are some advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation?
For advantages, it allows researchers to observe behavior in more natural settings, provides ideas for future research, obtains descriptive data, and allows ideas to not be manipulated. For disadvantages, it individuals may act different when observed, we are unknown to other variables, we aren’t sure what’s going on in a persons mind, and observer bias may play a role.
Survey
A descriptive technique for obtaining the self reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of a group.
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Population
All those in a group being studied, from which samples are drawn.
Correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts another.
Correlation coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between two things
( from - to +)
What is an unrepresentative sample, and how do researchers avoid it?
A group that does not represent the entire population being studied. Random sampling is often used to make a representative sample because each member can be included.
Variable
Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.
Scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation ( little scatter indicates high correlation).
Illusory correlation
perceiving relationships where none exists, or perceiving a stronger then actual relationship.
Regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average
What are illusory correlations, and what is regression toward the mean?
illusory correlations are random events that we notice and falsely assume they are related. Regression to the mean is the tendency for extreme and unusual scores to fall back toward their average.
Experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
Experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing pre existing differences between the groups
double blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both groups, researcher and participant are oblivious to whether they have received the treatment, or a placebo.
Independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
confounding variable
a factor other than the factored being studied that might influence a study’s result
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
what measures doe researchers use to prevent the placebo effect from confusing their results
They will compare experimental group with a control group, and possible do a double blind procedure.
By using random assignment, researches are able to control for….?, which are other factors besides independent variables that may influence research results.
confounding variables
