DEFINITIONS 5 Attitudes: Evaluating and Responding to the Social World

Question 1

attitude

Answer 1

Evaluation of various aspects of the social world

Question 2

explicit attitudes

Answer 2

Consciously accessible attitudes that are controllable and easy to report.

Question 3

implicit attitudes

Answer 3

Unconscious associations between objects and evaluative responses.

Question 4

social learning

Answer 4

The process through which we acquire new information, forms of behavior, or attitudes from other people.

Question 5

classical conditioning

Answer 5

A basic form of learning in which one stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated pairing with another stimulus. In a sense, one stimulus becomes a signal for the presentation or occurrence of the other.

Question 6

unconditioned stimulus

Answer 6

A stimulus that evokes a positive or negative response without substantial learning.

Question 7

conditioned stimulus

Answer 7

The stimulus that comes to stand for or signal a prior unconditioned stimulus.

Question 8

subliminal conditioning

Answer 8

Classical conditioning of attitudes by exposure to stimuli that are below individuals’ threshold of conscious awareness.

Question 9

mere exposure

Answer 9

By having seen before, but not necessarily remembering having done so, attitudes toward an object can be formed.

Question 10

illusion of truth effect

Answer 10

The mere repetition of information creates a sense of familiarity and more positive attitudes.

Question 11

instrumental conditioning

Answer 11

A basic form of learning in which responses that lead to positive outcomes or which permit avoidance of negative outcomes are strengthened.

Question 12

social networks

Answer 12

Composed of individuals with whom we have interpersonal relationships and interact with on a regular basis.

Question 13

observational learning

Answer 13

A basic form of learning in which individuals acquire new forms of behavior as a result of observing others.

Question 14

social comparison

Answer 14

The process through which we compare ourselves to others to determine whether our view of social reality is, or is not, correct.

Question 15

reference groups

Answer 15

Groups of people with whom we identify and whose opinions we value.

Question 16

pluralistic ignorance

Answer 16

When we collectively misunderstand what attitudes others hold and believe erroneously that others have different attitudes than us.

Question 17

theory of reasoned action

Answer 17

A theory suggesting that the decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process in which behavioral options are considered, consequences or outcomes of each are evaluated, and a decision is reached to act or not to act. That decision is then reflected in behavioral intentions, which strongly influence overt behavior.

Question 18

theory of planned behavior

Answer 18

An extension of the theory of reasoned action, suggesting that in addition to attitudes toward a given behavior and subjective norms about it, individuals also consider their ability to perform the behavior.

Question 19

implementation plan

Answer 19

A plan for how to implement our intentions to carry out some action.

Question 20

attitude-to-behavior process model

Answer 20

A model of how attitudes guide behavior that emphasizes the influence of attitudes and stored knowledge of what is appropriate in a given situation on an individual’s definition of the present situation. This definition, in turn, influences overt behavior.

Question 21

habit

Answer 21

Repeatedly performing a specific behavior so responses become relatively automatic whenever that situation is encountered.

Question 22

central route to persuasion

Answer 22

Attitude change resulting from systematic processing of information presented in persuasive messages.

Question 23

heuristic processing

Answer 23

Processing of information in a peruasive message that involves the use of simple rules of thumb or mental shortcuts.

Question 24

peripheral route to persuasion

Answer 24

Attitude change that occurs in response to peripheral persuasion cues, which is often based on information concerning the expertise or status of would-be persuaders.

Question 25

elaboration-likelihood model (ELM)

Answer 25

A theory suggesting that persuasion can occur in either of two distinct ways, differing in the amount of cognitive effort or elaboration the message receives.

Question 26

reactance

Answer 26

Negative reactions to threats to one’s personal freedom. Reactance often increases resistance to persuasion and can even produce negative attitude change or opposite to what was intended.

Question 27

forewarning

Answer 27

Advance knowledge that one is about to become the target of an attempt at persuasion. Forewarning often increases resistance to the persuasion that follows.

Question 28

selective avoidance

Answer 28

A tendency to direct attention away from information that challenges existing attitudes. Such avoidance increases resistance to persuasion.

Question 29

self-regulation

Answer 29

Limited capacity to engage our willpower and control our own thinking and emotions.

Question 30

ego-depletion

Answer 30

When our capacity to self-regulate has been reduced because of prior expenditures of limited resources.

Question 31

cognitive dissonance

Answer 31

An internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between their attitudes and their behavior.

Question 32

less-leads-to-more effect

Answer 32

The fact that offering individuals small rewards for engaging in counterattitudinal behavior often produces more dissonance, and so more attitude change, than offering them larger rewards.

Question 33

hypocrisy

Answer 33

Publicly advocating some attitudes or behavior and then acting in a way that is inconsistent with these attitudes or behavior.