Deck 4 Flashcards
Psychoanalysis Theory
attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Theory that proposes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development
Trust v mistrust (0-18 months)
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
as children grow up, their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts
<p>Freud's stages of psychosexual development</p>
<p>1. Oral Stage
2. Anal Stage
3. Phallic Stage
4. Latency Stage
5. Genital Stage</p>
Trust vs. Mistrust
If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Erikson’s stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive
identity vs identity confusion
the period during which teenagers seek to determine what is unique and distinctive about themselves
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Erikson’s stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Erikson’s stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one’s potential and doing public service
integrity vs despair
Erikson’s final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives
Cognitive Theory
A theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development
Initiative vs. Guilt
Erikson’s third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities
Piaget stages of cognitive development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s 1st stage of cognitive development (0-2), infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
preoperational stage
Piaget’s 2nd stage (2-6), child learns to use language but doesn’t comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
concrete operational stage
Piaget’s 3rd stage (7-11), children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
formal operational stage
Piaget’s 4th stage (12-death), people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
Vygotsky’s Cognitive Theory
A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
information processing theory
a perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are brought about by rewards and punishments
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Holds that behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are the key factors in development
Ethological Theory
behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution
Ecological Theory
theory based on idea that human development is inseparable from the environmental contexts in which a person develops
germinal period
The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation.
Blastocyst
hollow ball of cells - early stage of development
trophoblast
outer cells of the blastocyst that secrete enzymes that allow implantation
embryonic period
the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop
amnion
Innermost membranous sac surrounding the developing fetus
umbilical cord
a tube containing the blood vessels connecting the fetus and placenta
Organogenesis
formation of organs
fetal period
the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child
Neurons
nerve cells
Teratogen
any factor that can cause a birth defect
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
disorder affecting babies whose mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol while they were pregnant
preterm infants
infants who are born prior to 38 weeks after conception (also known as premature infants)
self-conscious emotions
emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others’ reactions to us
basic cry
cry that starts softly and gradually becomes more intense; often heard when babies are hungry or tired
anger cry
a cry similar to the basic cry but with more excess air forced through the vocal cords
pain cry
cry that begins with a sudden long burst, followed by a long pause and gasping
reflexive smile
A smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli. It happens during the month after birth, usually during sleep.
social smile
a smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
separation protest
an infant’s distressed crying when the caregiver leaves
temperament
a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
goodness of fit
the match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with
social referencing
reading emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation
strange situation
a behavioral test developed by Mary Ainsworth that is used to determine a child’s attachment style
insecure avoidant babies
babies who show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver
securely attached babies
babies who use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment
insecure resistant babies
clings to caregiver, then resists by fighting against the closeness
insecure disorganized babies
disorientation; extreme fearfulness may be shown even with caregiver
developmental cascade model
involves connections across domains over time that influence developmental pathways and outcomes
reciprocal socialization
Socialization that is bidirectional; children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children.
Scaffolding
Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child’s current level of performance
self-understanding
The child’s cognitive representation of self, the substance and content of the child’s self-conceptions.
moral development
growth in the ability to tell right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically
heteronomous morality
The first stage of moral development in Piaget’s theory, occurring from approximately 4 to 7 years of age. Justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people.
autonomous morality
The belief that conscience is the only moral authority
immanent justice
the concept that if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately
gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
social role theory
a theory that gender differences result from the contrasting roles of men and women
psychoanalytic theory of gender
A theory deriving from Freud’s view that the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent, by approximately 5 or 6 years of age renounces this attraction because of anxious feelings, and subsequently identifies with the same-sex parent, unconsciously adopting the same-sex parent’s characteristics.
social cognitive theory of gender
a theory emphasizing that children’s gender development occurs through the observation and imitation of gender behavior and through the rewards and punishments children experience for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior
gender schema theory
the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly
authoritaRIAN parenting
style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child
authoritaTIVE parenting
parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making
neglectful parenting
a parenting style characterized by a lack of parental involvement in the child’s life
indulgent parenting
A style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them. Indulgent parenting is associated with children’s social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.
sensorimotor play
behavior engaged in by infants to derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas
practice play
play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports
pretense/symbolic play
play in which the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol
social play
play that involves social interactions with peers
constructive play
play in which children manipulate objects to produce or build something
Erik Erikson
Known for his 8-stage theory of Psychosocial Development
Jean Piaget
Known for his theory of cognitive development in children
Lev Vygotsky
child development; investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research
contemporary life-events approach
a life event influences the individual’s development depends not only on the event but also on mediating factors, the individual’s adaptation to the life event, the life-stage context, and the sociohistorical context.
fight or flight response
an emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action
tend and befriend
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)
social clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Big Five Personality Traits
openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
empty nest syndrome
alleged period of depression in mothers following the departure of their grown children from the home
<p>Stages of Adulthood</p>
<p>Early adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood</p>
The Life-Events Approach
the view that a person’s state of well-being can be threatened by major life changes
<p>Stress and Personal Control in Midlife</p>
<p>Middle-aged adults experience more "overload" stressors that involve juggling too many activities at once
Developmental changes in perceived personal control
Some aspects of personal control increase with age while others decrease</p>
secure attachment style
an attachment style characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the view that one is worthy and well liked
avoidant attachment style
An attachment style characterized by a suppression of attachment needs, because attempts to be intimate have been rebuffed; people with this style find it difficult to develop intimate relationships
anxious attachment style
an attachment style that describes adults who demand closeness, are less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive
consensual validation
An explanation of why individuals are attracted to people who are similar to them. Our own attitudes and behavior are supported and validated when someone else’s attitudes and behavior are similar to our own.
matching hypothesis
the tendency to develop relationships with people who are approximately as attractive as we are
romantic love
intimacy and passion
affectionate love
also called companionate love, this type of love occurs when individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person
Plastic Development
human traits can be molded, yet people maintain a certain durability of identity
Multidisciplinary development
development is often segmented into: infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, emerging adulthood, adulthood, late adulthood
multidirectional development
Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a dimension expand and others shrink.
contextual development
context: family, eers, schoools, cities, neighbohoods, university, and so on. Settings.
Lifelong development
no age period dominates development
Nature vs. Nurture
name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
Erikson’s second stage of development
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1½-3, toddler asserts themselves and develops some sense of independence)
Erikson’s third stage of development
Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6, children meet challenges, assume responsibility, identity the rights of others)
Erikson’s fourth stage of psychosocial development
industry vs inferiority (5-13)
Erikson’s fifth stage
-Identity vs. role confusion (13-19 the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self)
Erikson’s sixth stage of development
Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-39, seeks committed life partner, friends)
Erikson’s seventh stage
Generatively Vs Stagnation (25-65 years)
Erikson’s eighth stage of development
Integrity vs. Despair (65-death, life is meaningful, no regrets)
nature (*in relation to nature vs. nurture)
biological inheritance
nurture (*in relation to nature vs. nurture)
environmental experiences
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Does development happen smoothly or shift abruptly in stages?
continuity (*in relation to Continuity vs. Discontinuity)
development is a gradual, smooth change
discontinuity (*in relation to Continuity vs. Discontinuity)
development happens in distinct changes
Stability vs. Change
do early traits and characteristics persist through life or change overtime? (which debate?)
stability (*in relation to Stability vs. Change)
personality traits present during present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan
change (*in relation to Stability vs. Change)
personalities are modified by interactions with family, experiences at school, and acculturation.
descriptive research
observe and record behavior
Correlational Research
describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics
experimental research
carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant
Case Study
in-depth look at a single individual
Genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
Phenotype
An organism’s physical appearance, or visible traits.
genetic abnormalities
missing genes, extra genes, or defective genes (cystic fibrosis, spina bifida, sickle-cell anemia)
chromosomal abnormalities
a deficiency or excess of one or more chromosomes (down syndrome, turner syndrome)
Teratogen
any factor that can cause a birth defect
effects of nicotine on fetus
low birth weights, fetal and neonatal deaths, respiratory problems, and SIDS
effects of alcohol on fetus (Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, aka FASD)
facial deformities and defective limbs, face, and heart, learning problems
effects of cocaine on fetus
reduced birth weight, length, and head circumference,
cephalocaudal pattern of growth
Growth sequence that gradually works from top to bottom of the body
proximodistal pattern of growth
the sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities
universal linguists
Infants (0-6mo) can detect differences between the speech sounds of ANY human language
language specific listener
Babies 6mo+ only detect differences between the speech and sound of their language
Kubler-Ross stages of dying
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
Dominant
An allele that is always expressed
Recessive
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
Down Syndrome
chromosomal abnormality causing intellectual disabilities and physical abnormalities
Klinefelter syndrome
chromosomal abnormality in which males have an extra X chromosome; physical abnormalities
Fragile X Syndrome
chromosomal abnormality in the X chromosome intellectual disability, learning disabilities, short attention span
Turner Syndrome
chromosomal abnormality in females in which either an X chromosome; intellectual disability and sexual underdevelopment
XYY syndrome
chromosomal abnormality in which males have an extra Y chromosome; cause above-average height
Spinda Bifida
genetic disorder; neural tube disorder that causes brain and spine abnormalities
cystic fibrosis
genetic disorder; that is present at birth and affects both the respiratory and digestive systems.
diabetes
genetic disorder; body does not produce enough insulin, causes abnormal metabolism of sugar
sickle cell anemia
genetic abnormality; blood disorder, limits body’s oxygen supply
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
genetic abnormality; metabolic disorder that cases intellectual disability if left untreated.
behavior genetics
the study of how much genetic and environmental influences our behavior
twin study
A study in which the behavioral similarity of identical twins is compared with the behavioral similarity of fraternal twins.
adoption study
analysis of how traits vary in individuals raised apart from their biological relatives
<p>passive genotype-environment correlations</p>
<p>Correlations that exist when the natural parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child
(parents who like to read provide an environment with lots of books)</p>
evocative genotype-environment correlations
Correlations that exist when the child’s genetically influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments
<p>active (niche-picking) gene-environment correlation</p>
<p>Correlations that exist when children seek out environments they find compatible and stimulating.
(someone who likes music will go to concerts and surround themselves with others who like music)
</p>
proximodistal pattern
the sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities
cephalocaudal pattern
The sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top—the head—with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom.
Lateralization
cognitive function that relies more on one side of the brain than the other
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
the unexplained death of a seemingly healthy baby
Marasmus
severe undernourishment causing an infant’s or child’s weight to be significantly low for their age
Kwashiorkor
protein deficiency
dynamic systems theory
A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical and emotional being and between the person and every aspect of his or her environment, including the family and society.
Reflexes
specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation
rooting reflex
a baby’s tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple
sucking reflex
Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth
Moro reflex
Reflex in which a newborn stretches out the arms and legs and cries in response to a loud noise or an abrupt change in the environment
grasping reflex
an infant’s clinging response to a touch on the palm of his or her hand
gross motor skills
physical abilities involving large body movements, such as walking and jumping
fine motor skills
motor skills that involve more finely tuned movements
visual preference method
studying whether infants can distinguish one stimulus from another by measuring the length of time they attend to different stimuli
A-not-B error
the tendency to reach for a hidden object where it was last found rather than in the new location where it was last hidden
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
internalization of schemes
Piaget’s sixth and final sensorimotor substage, which develops between 18 and 24 months of age. In this substage, the infant develops the ability to use primitive symbols.
