Deck 3 Flashcards
Multidirectional
Some dimensions expand and others shrink
Multidimensional
Has biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions
Plastic
The capacity for change
Lifelong
Early adulthood is not the endpoint of development; no age period dominates development
Multidisciplinary
Various areas of study have an interest in the field of development through the life span
Contextual
All development occurs within a context, or setting (social, cultural, and historic factors)
Nature
Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance.
Nature Example
We walk before we talk, speak one word before two words, grow rapidly in infancy and less so in early childhood, experience a rush of sex hormones in puberty, reach the peak of our physical strength in late adolescence and early adulthood, and then physically decline.
Nurture
Nurture refers to an organism’s environmental experiences
Nurture Example
Experiences run the gamut from the individual’s biological environment (nutrition, medical care, drugs, and physical accidents) to the social environment (family, peers, schools, community, media, and culture)
Continuity
focuses on the degree to which the development involves a gradual, cumulative change
continuity example
An oak grows from a seedling to a giant oak, it becomes more of an oak - its development is continuous
discontinuity
focuses on the degree to which development involves distinct stages
Discontinuity example
as an insect grows from a caterpillar to a chrysalis to a butterfly, it passes through a sequence of stages in which change is qualitative rather than quantitatively different. Similarly, at some point a child moves from not being able to think abstractlyl about the world to being able to do so.
Stability
Debate about whether we become older renditions of our early experience
Stability Example
Many argue that if an individual is shy throughout life, this stability is due to heredity and possibly early experiences in which the infant or young child encountered considerable stress when interacting with people
Change
We develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development
Change example
Developmentalists who emphasize change take the more optimistic view that later experiences can produce change. Recall that in the life-span perspective, plasticity, the potential for change, exists throughout the life span.
Freud’s Theories
Freud believed that people’s problems were the result of experiences early in life. He thought that as children grow up, their focus on pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals. As a result, we go through five stages of psychosexual development: Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
Erikson’s Theory
Focuses on Psychosocial. Eight Stages of human development. Each stage consists of unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
Trust versus mistrust
Erikson’s first psychosocial stage, which is experienced in the first year of life. The development of trust during infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live.
Autonomy versus Shame and doubt
Erikson’s second stage. This stage occurs in late infancy and toddlerhodd ( 1-3 years) after gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy. They realize their will. If Infants and toddlers are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.
Initiative versus guilt
Erikson’s Third stage of development occurs during the preschool years. As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they face new challenges that require active purposeful, responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though, if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel anxious.
Industry versus inferiority
Erikson’s fourth developmental stages, occurring approximately during the elementary school years. Children now need to direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. The negative outcome is that the child may develop a sense of inferiority – feeling incompetent and unproductive.
Identity Versus identity confusion
Erikson’s fifth developmental stage that occurs during adolescent years. If adolescents explore roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to follow in life, then they achieve a positive identity, if they do not, identity confusion reigns.
Intimacy versus isolation
Erikson’s sixth developmental stage, which occurs during early adulthood. Individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships. If young adults form healthy friendships and an intimate relationship with another, intimacy will be achieved; if not, isolation will result.
Generativity versus stagnation
Erikson’s seventh developmental stage that occurs during middle adulthood. By generativity Erikson means primarily a concern for helping the younger generation to develop and lead useful lives. The feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation is stagnation.
Integrity versus despair
Erikson’s eighth and final stage of development which occurs during late adulthood. During this stage a person reflects on the past. If the person’s life review reveals a life well spent, integrity will be achieved; if not the retrospective glances will likely yield doubt or gloom.
Piaget’s cognitive Developmental Theory
Children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the world. Two processes underlie this cognitive construction of the world: organization and adaptation. To make sense of our world we organize our experiences.
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s first stage that lasts from birth to 2 years old. Infants in this stage construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (Such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions
The preoperational Stage
Piaget’s second stages that lasts from 2-7 years of age. Children begin to go beyond simply connecting sensory information with physical actions and represent the world with words, images, and drawings. They are not able to internalize mental actions
Concrete operational stage
Piaget’s third stage that lasts from 7-11 years of age. Children can perform operations that involved objects, and they can reason logically when the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples. concrete operational thinkers cannot imagine the steps necessary to complete an algebraic equation, which is too abstract for thinking at this stage of development.
The formal operational stage
Piaget’s fourth and final stage that occurs between 11-15 years of age and continues through adulthood. Individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think in abstract and more logical terms. as part of thinking more abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances.
Vygotsky’s theory
A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. A child’s development depends on social and cultural activities and social interactions with more skilled adults.
Information-processing theory
Individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Unlike Piaget’s theory, but like Vygotsky’s theory, This theory does not describe development as stage-like but as gradual increase capacity for processing information.
<p>Operant Conditioning Theory</p>
<p>the theory that people learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences.
A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur.</p>
Social Cognitive Theory
The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development.
Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s theory that human development is shaped by five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
Microsystem
The setting in which the individual lives. These contexts include the person’s family, peers, school, and neighborhood.
Mesosystem
connections between microsystems
Exosystem
consists of social settings in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context. Ex. A husband’s experience at home may be influenced by a mother’s experiences at work.
Macrosystem
The culture in which individuals live.
Ethnology
study of humankind; study of the different races of human beings;
How does Erikson’s theory differ from Freud’s?
Freud’s theory was sexual in nature, Erikson’s focused on social and human interaction. Feud believed that our basic personaility was formed within the first five years of our life. Erikson believed change occurred throughout the lifespan.
Trust vs. Mistrust occurs when? Looks like what?
0-1 Infant.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Age and description
1-3 toddlers
Initiative vs guilt Age and description
3-5 preschool
Age and Description
6- 11/12 Elementary
Age and description
Adolescence
Age and Example
20-30 Early Adulthood
Age and Example
30-50 Middle adulthood
Age and Example
60+ Late adulthood
age of sensorimotor stage
birth to 2 years
age of preoperational stage
2-7 years
age of concrete operational stage
11-Jul
age of formal operational stage
11- through adulthood
Descriptive research and when it’s used
Observe and record behavior. By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what causes some phenomenon, but it can reveal important information about people’s behavior.
When its used
Research that attempts to determine the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics.
Experimental and when its used
A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behvaior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are help constant
Case study and when it’s used
An in-depth look at a single individual. Provides information about one person’s experiences
Cross-sectional and when it’s used
A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time. Can be completed in a short amount of time.
Longitudinal approach and when it’s used
A research strategy in which the same indviduals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more.
Dominant Gene
One gene of a pair always exerts its effects, overrides the potential influence of the recessive gene
Recessive Gene
Exerts its influence only if the two genes of a pair are both recessive
Genotype
a person’s genetic heritage; the actual genetic material
Phenotype
the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
Down Syndrome
Chromosomal abnormality
XYY syndrome
Chromosomal abnormality
Fragile X syndrome
Chromosomal abnormality
Sickle-cell anemia
A genetic abnormality that impairs the functioning of the body’s red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the body’s other cells and are usually disk-shaped. In sickle-cell anemia, a recessive gene causes the red blood cell to become a hook-shaped “sickle” that cannot carry oxygen properly and dies quickly. As a result, the body’s cells do not receive adequate oxygen, causing anemia and early death.
Diabetes
Genetic abnormality
Spina Bifida
Genetic abnormality
What is the goal of the filed of behavioral genetics?
The field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development. They try and figure out what is responsible for the differences among people, to what extent people vary because of differences in genes, environment, or a combination of these factors
How do the findings of adoption studies and twin studies help us to understand the role of heredity and environment?
Some of these interactions are heredity-environment correlations, which means that individuals’ genes may be systematically related to the types of environments to which they are exposed. In a sense, individuals “inherit,” seek out, or “construct” environments that may be related or linked to genetic “propensities.”
passive genotype-environment correlations
occur because biological parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child
Evocative Genotype- environment correlation
Occurs because a child’s genetically influenced characteristics elicit certain types of environments. For Example, active smiling children receive more social stimulation than passive, quiet children do.
active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations
Occurs when children seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating. Niche-picking refers to finding a setting that is uited to one’s genetically influenced abilities. Children select from their surrounding environment certain aspects that they respond to, learn about, or ignore. Their active selections of environments are related to their particular genotype.
The Germinal Period
first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining
The embryonic period
the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.
The fetal period
the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child
Teratogen
Tera meaning monster. Any agent that causes a birth defect.
Why do some infants exhibit effects of exposure to a teratogen while others do not (3 main factors that influence extent of impact)?
Dose - The greater the dose of an agent, such as a drug, the greater the effect
Effects of nicotine on a dev eloping embryo
Preterm briths
Effects of alcohol on a developing embryo
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
Effects of cocaine on developing embryo
Reduced birth weight, length, and head circumference
cephalocaudal pattern
Developmental sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top - the head - with physical growth in size, weight, and feature differentiation gradually working from top to bottom.
proximodistal pattern
Developmental sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities.
reflex
Built-in reactions to stimuli that govern the newborn’s movements, which are automatic and beyond the newborn’s control
Identify 2 examples of reflexes that disappear several months after birth
Rooting reflex: A newborn’s built-in reaction that occurs when the infant’s cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched. In response, the infant turns his or her head toward the side that was touched, in an apparent effort to find something to suck
Identify 2 examples of reflexes that persist throughout life
Coughing
What is the main idea of the dynamic system of view of development
Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting. Notice that perception and action are coupled, according to this theory. To develop motor skills, infants must perceive something in their environment that motivates them to act and use their perceptions to fine tune their movements. Motor Skills represent solutions to the infant’s goals
Gross and Fine motor development at 3 months of age
Gross: Lifting their head, sitting up with support
Gross and fine motor development at 6 months
Gross: Support some weight with legs. Roll over. Sit without support
Gross and Fine motor development age 9 months
Gross:Stand with support. Pull self to stand
Gross and fine motor development at age 12 months
Gross: Walking and standing independently.
How are sensation and perception related?
Sensation is the receiving of information on a sensory receptor, like the ears, tongue, skin or nostrils. perception is the interpretation of that sense.
What do infants prefer to look at?
Patterns, like a face, piece of printed matter, or a bull’s-eye. Saturated colors such as royal blue over pale blue.
What do infants prefer to hear?
Babies typically love what is familiar to them. Which includes mother’s voice (typically higher pitched) and human faces.
Schemes (Piaget)
actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Accommodation (Piaget)
adjustment of their schemes to take new information and experiences into account.
Assimilation (Piaget)
When children use their existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences
Object permanence
The Piagetian term for understanding that objects and events continue to exist, even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
According to Piaget, from birth to age 24 months infants are _____ stage of development
in the sensorimotor
Order of the five communication behaviors of children
Before birth – Crying
What is the difference between a universal linguist and a language specific listener?
Universal Linguist refers to crying, cooing, babbling, which all occur within the first six months of life. Infants are “ citizens of the world” they recognize when sounds change most of the time, no matter what language the syllables come from.
Temperament
individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding
What factors influence infant temperament
Biological Foundations and experiences
Goodness of fit
the match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with
What are typical infant behaviors that illustrate the trust versus mistrust stage of Erikson’s theory
Sense of self
What are typical infant behaviors that illustrate the autonomy vs shame/doubt stage of Erikson’s theory?
Independence
secure attachment pattern
a style of attachment in which children use the mother as a kind of home base and are at ease when she is present; when she leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns
insecure-avoidant attachment
a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return
insecure-resistant attachment
classification of parent-child attachment in which the child shows little exploratory behavior when the parent is present, great distress when the parent leaves the room, and ambivalence upon the parent’s return
insecure-disorganized attachment
a pattern of attachment in which an infant seems confused or apprehensive and shows contradictory behavior, such as moving toward the mother while looking away from her
What role does culture play in infant-caregiver attachment?
German and Japanese babies often show patterns of attachment different from those of American infants. As illustrated in , German infants are more likely to show an avoidant attachment pattern and Japanese infants are less likely to display this pattern than U.S. infants. The avoidant pattern in German babies likely occurs because their caregivers encourage them to be independent. Also as shown in , Japanese babies are more likely than American babies to be categorized as resistant.
What are the similarities and differences in physical changes and growth rates in infancy versus early childhood?
During infancy, a child grows quickly, while early childhood that growth begins to decline.
Recommended hours of sleep for young children and risks if not obtained.
11-13 hours
Recommended nutrition and potential risks
Recommendations: Eat a predictable schedule
Recommended Exercise in children and potential risks
Recommendations: Daily ( 2 hours for children) One hour structured and one unstructured
Recommended Safety/accident prevention for children and potential risks
No smoking
Animism
The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action
Centration
A centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others
Egocentrism
The inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective
Conservation (Piaget
The awareness that altering an object’s or a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties.
Vygostky proposed that speech serves not only a communicative purpose but also….
serves to help them solve tasks
Scaffolding
Changing level of support over course of teaching session to fit child’s current performance level
Theory of mind
Awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others
Piaget’s pre-operational period, what are some behaviors that would demonstrate that the child is in the symbolic function substage?
The symbolic function sub-stage is the first sub-stage of pre-operational thought (age 2-4) During this sub-stage the young child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present.
What are some behaviors that would demonstrate the child is in the intuitive thought sub-stage?
Intuitive thought (age 4-7) children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions. They will ask questions like “What makes you grow up?” “Why does the sun shine?”
What impact does early (preschool) education have for children?
Children learn social skills, problem solving skills, and they learn to practice all of those skills.
During early childhood, children use their perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen. Erikson referred to this as …. failure to do so may result in experiencing …
Initiative
Evolutionary View
Biological dispositions
social role theory
Social Experiences
psychoanalytic theory
A theory developed by Freud
Social cognitive theory
Children’s gender development occurs through observation and imitation of what other people say and do, and through being rewarded and punished for gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behavior.
authoritative parenting style
-Encourages children to be independent but within limits of control, warm and nurturing, respect for a child’s decision
authoritarian parenting
A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children’s desires, and communicate poorly with their children.
Indulgent parenting style
Parents are low on control, but high on acceptance. They have few rules and avoid controlling their children. Children never learn to control their own behavior.
Neglectful parenting style
parent is uninvolved in a child’s life. Feel that their life is more important than the child’s. The children tend to be socially incompetent, truant and delinquent.
Physical abuse
The infliction of physical injury as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, or otherwise harming a child.
Child Neglect
Failure to provide for the child’s basic needs. Neglect can be physical, educational, or emotional.
Sexual abuse
when an adult uses a child or adolescent for sexual purposes. Fondling a child’s genitals, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials.
Emotional abuse
acts or omissions by parents or other caregivers that have caused, or could cause, serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems
What type of maltreatment is most common?
child neglect
What impact does physical abuse have on the lives of young children?
Poor emotion regulation
What impact does child neglect, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse have in the lives of young children?
behavioral issues, cognitive issues, and emotional issues.
What is the role of play in early childhood?
Affiliation with peers, tension release, advances in cognitive development, exploration, and provision of a safe haven.
Sensorimotor - role of play
Behavior engaged in by infants that lets them derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemas. Exploration ?
Practice Play
play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports
pretense/symbolic play
play that occurs when a child transforms aspects of the physical environment into symbols. Reflects children’s advancements in their cognitive development.
Social play
play that involves interaction with peers
Height and weight of infants
Height: 20 inches long
Height and weight of early/middle childhood
Height: Grow 2-3 inches a year. At age 11 girls are 4 ft 10in. boys: 4ft 9in
How do growth rates differ during infancy and early childhood?
Growth slows dramatically in childhood.
How are children in the concrete operational stage different from those in the pre-operation stage?
Concrete operations allow the child to consider several characteristics rather than focusing on a single property of an object.
What concept can concrete operational children understand that they could not previously?
Concrete operations allow the child to consider several characteristics rather than focusing on a single property of an object.
What other abilities are characteristic of children who have reached the concrete operational stage?
Classify or divide things into different sets or subsets and to consider their interrelationship.
How does information processing approach define short term memory?
A passive storehouse with shelves to store information until it is moved to long-term memory
How does the information processing approach define working memory?
A kind of mental “workbench” where individuals manipulate and assemble information when they make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and spoken language.
How does information processing approach define Long-term memory?
A relatively permanent and unlimited type of memory, increases with age during middle and late childhood.
Analytical intelligence
ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast.
Creative intelligence
consists of the ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine
Practical Intelligence (Sternberg)
ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist
What students high in verbal intelligence might like:
Writing, speaking, word puzzles
What students high in Mathematical intelligence might like:
Math games, numbers, logic puzzles
What students high in spatial intelligence might like:
Maps, charts, drawing, sculpture
What students high in body kinesthetic intelligence might like:
Movement, dance, sports
What students high in musical intelligence might like:
Musical instruments, singing, listening to sounds
What students high in interpersonal intelligence might like:
Cooperative games, peer tutoring, interacting with others
What students high in intrapersonal intelligence might like:
self-reflection, journaling, setting goals
What students high in naturalist intelligence might like:
Outdoors, plants, bugs, environmental topics
How is giftedness defined (measured)?
Having above-average intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent for something.
What challenges might a gifted child face?
Not enough programs in school to help expand their talents
How is a learning disability defined?
A child with a learning disability has difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language, and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading, writing, and spelling. A learning disability also may involve difficulty in doing mathematics.
Why are boys more likely to be labeled as having a learning disability?
3 time as many boys are classified as having a learning disability. They are referred more because of troublesome behavior.
What is meant by the term “mental retardation”?
Intellectual disability is a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual has a low IQ, usually below 70, and has difficultly adapting to the demands of everyday life, and first exhibits these characteristics by age 18.
How does billingualism have a positive effect on children’s development?
Children perform better on tests of control of attention, concept formation, analytical reasoning, cognitive flexibility, and cognitive complexity.
Describe an activity a child of middle childhood age might engage in that demonstrates the concept of industry (Erikson’s fourth stage).
Building a model airplane, constructing a tree house, fixing a bike, solving an addition problem, or cooking.
Major stages of Kohlberg’s theory of morality
Preconventional reasoning ( stage 1: heteronomous morality. Stage 2: Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange)
Kohlberg’s theory of morality Stage 1 and 2
Preconventional reasoning: the lowest level of moral reasoning
Kohlberg’s theory of morality stages 3 and 4
Conventional reasoning: is the second level. Individuals abide by certain standards (internal), but they are the standards of others, such as parents or the laws of society.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development Stages 5 and 6
Postconventional reasoning: third and highest level. At this level, morality is more internal.
How do children’s ability to cope with stress and express emotion change?
They are more able to accurately appraise a stressful situation and determine how much control they have over it. older children are better at shifting attention away from stressful situations or understanding another’s perspective.
How does the parent-child relationship change as a children move into middle and later childhood?
Parents spend less time with their children in middle and later childhood. Children are able to self regulate their moment to moment activities.
constructivist approach to education
A learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher. Teachers should encourage children to explore their world and work with their peers.
fixed versus growth mindset
Fixed mindset: They believe their qualities are carved in stone and cannot change
Description of puberty in boys
Growth of penis and testes,
Puberty in boys occurs at age…
May begin as early as 10- 13 1/2
puberty in girls
widening and roundness of hips,
Age of puberty in girls
9-15 first period
What are the main hormones associated with puberty for girls?
Estradiol, a type of estrogen
What are the main hormones associated with puberty for boys?
Testosterone
What are some health-risk behavioral issues that show an increase in adolescence?
Not getting enough exercise and sleep
What factors contribute to these behaviors or disorders in adolescence?
Alcohol
What are the major characteristics of formal operational thought?
Abstract then concrete operational thought (make believe situations, hypothetical events)
What are some criticisms of Piaget’s concept of formal operations?
There is much more individual variation. only 1 in 3 young adolescent is a formal operational thinker.
personal fable (Elkind)
Adolescent egocentrisim
imaginary audience (Elkind)
adolescents’ belief that others are as interested in them as they themselves are, as well as attention-getting behavior— attempts to be noticed, visible, and “on stage.
Erikson’s fifth developmental stage, which individuals experience during adolescence is …. During this time, adolescents are face with deciding who they are, what they are about, and where they are going in life
Identity versus identity confusion
Identity
A self-portrait composed of many pieces such as; religious identity, sexual identity, interests, personality
self esteem
the overall way we evaluate ourselves
self-concept
domain-specific evaluations of the self
self regulation
deliberate efforts to manage one’s behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement
Identity diffusion
the status of individuals who have not yet experienced a crisis or made any commitments. Not only are they undecided about occupational and ideological choices, they are also likely to show little interest in such matters.
identity moratorium
the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis, whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined, but who are actively exploring alternatives.
Identity foreclosure
The status of individuals who have made a commitment but not experienced a crisis. This occurs most often when parents hand down commitments to their adolescents, before the child has had a chance to explore different approaches, ideologies, and vocations on their own.
identity achievement
The status of individuals who have undergone a crisis and made a commitment
Crisis and no crisis
Crisis: identity moratorium
Crisis and not Crisis
Crisis: Identity diffusion
What is meant by sexual identity?
Whether a person is heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual
How does sexual identity develop during adolescence?
dating rituals that teenagers may engage in to explore their sexuality.
What is meant by ethnic identity?
Ethnic identity is an enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, along with the attributes and feelings related to that membership
How does a positive ethnic identity relate to outcomes for ethnic minority adolescents?
higher self esteem
How does religion and spiritual development relate to social and cognitive development for adolescents?
By encouraging them to ask questions and think logically about spiritual matters.
How do the roles of peers differ from that of parents in the lives of adolescents?
Parents act as monitors for adolsecents
What are the causes of, or factors related to, juvenile delinquency in adolescence?
Low SES - culture
What are the causes of depression in adolescence?
Genes linked to depression
What are the risk factors for suicide during adolescence?
Use of alcohol
What are the roles of nutrition on the health of young adults?
poor eating habits can cause obesity which is linked to hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and mental health issues.
What are the roles of exercise in the health of young adults
Exercise helps young adults prevent chronic disorders such as heart disease, and diabetes. Decreases depression and anxiety and increases self-image.
How is adult cognition different from that of adolescents?
Both are under the formal operational thought stage, but adults are more quantitatively advanced in their thinking because they have more knowledge in specific field, unlike adolescents.
What is meant by post-formal thought?
A theory that has been put together by the descriptions of adult thinking. It is believed that young adults move into this cognitive development
According to Eriksons theory, … is described as finding oneself while losing oneself in another person
intimacy
When young adults fail to develop meaningful relationships it may result in
isolation
How do the peer relationships of men and women differ?
Women:
How prevalent is divorce?
Divorce rates have dropped but the US still has the highest rates in the world.
What ways are gay and lesbian relationships similar to those of heterosexual couples?
Satisfactions, loves, joys, and conflicts. They both have to find balance of romantic love, affection, autonomy, and equality that is acceptable to both partners.
What misconceptions about gay and lesbian relationships exist?
Only a small percentage of gay and lesbian couples have both a masculine and feminine individual.
How do adults cope with and react to the impact of divorce
The libertines. People in this category often spent more time in singles bars and had more casual sex than their counterparts in the other divorce categories. However, by the end of the first year post-divorce, they often grew disillusioned with their sensation-seeking lifestyle and wanted a stable relationship.
Climacteric
The midlife transition in which fertility declines
menopause
The time in middle age, usually 40-50s, when a woman’s menstrual period ceases.
What type of health problems may begin in middle adulthood?
Chronic disorders such as arthritis, varicose veins, bursities, stroke, cancer, cornoary heart disease
What role does stress play in health during middle adulthood?
Contributes to many diseases. Can have damaging effects on physical functioning. Acceleration of pancreatic cancer growth, lowers the immune system and causes cardiovascular system stress.
Fluid intelligence
The ability to reason abstractly
Crystallized intelligence
accumulated information and verbal skills
Information processing speed
Another way of examining cognitive abilities often assessed through reaction time.
Working memory
active maintenance of information in short-term storage
The term…. describes adults’ desire to leave legacies of themselves to the next generation
Generatvity
How do men and women differ in reactions to stressful life events?
Women:
Costa and McCrae’s Baltimore Study
Focused on the big five factors of personality; openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional stability) (OCEAN)
Berkeley Longitudinal Studies
Intellectual orientation, self-confidence, and openness to new experience were the more stable traits
Helson’s Mills College Study
Three main groups of women:
George Vaillant’s Studies
Explored the question: Does personality at middle age predict what a person’s life will be like in late adulthood?
What are some age related changes in the brain during late adulthood?
Loss of brain volume
What are some chronic disorders that impact people in late adult hood?
arthritis
Cognitive mechanics
The “hardware” of the mind, reflecting the neurophysiological architecture of the brain. Cognitive mechanics involve the speed and accuracy of the processes involving sensory input, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization.
Cognitive pragmatics
The culture-based “software programs” of the mind. Cognitive pragmatics include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and also the type of knowledge about the self and life skills that help us to master or cope with life.
Speed of processing
How fast you process information
Episodic memory
The retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings. Ex. What was the color of the walls of your bedroom when you were a child.
Semantic memory
memory for knowledge about the world. Includes a person’s field of expertise
Explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”
implicit memory
Memory without conscious recollection. Ex. Driving a car
Prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
What are the main findings of longitudinal studies in regards to cognitive function in late adulthood?
• when middle-aged and older adults participated in intellectually engaging activities it served to buffer them against cognitive decline
What are the main conclusions drawn from research regarding the effect of memory/cognition training?
Training can improve the cognitive skills of many older adults
Erikson’s theory (Integrity vs despair)
reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one’s life has not been well spent
Activity theory
the theory that the more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives
socioemotional selectivity theory
The theory that older adults become more selective about their social networks. Because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships.
selective optimization with compensation theory
the theory that successful aging is related to three main factors: selection, optimization, and compensation
Three factors that are related to positive, successful aging
being active, socially and physically
Hospice
a program committed to making the end of life as free from pain, anxiety, and depression as possible
Palliative care
reducing pain and suffering and helping individuals die with dignity
What are current trends in the US regarding hospice and palliative care?
Growing in popularity. 90% of hospice takes place in homes.
Children’s view of death
3-5 year olds have little to no idea what death means
Adolescent view of dath
Develop more an abstract conception of death than children do. They develop religious and philosophical views about the nature of death and life after death
Adults view of death
Middle-aged adults fear death
Kubler-Ross’s stage theory of dying
denial and isolation, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
disenfranchised grief
grief involving a deceased person that is a socially ambiguous loss that can’t be openly mourned or supported.
Prolonged or complicated grief
when an individual have difficulty moving on with their life, feeling numb or detached, believing their life is empty without the deceased, and feeling that the future has no meaning
How are disenfranchised grief, prolonged grief, and complicated grief similar?
Both occur for long periods of time, longer than 6 months
How are disenfranchised grief, prolonged grief, and complicated grief different?
Those who have prolonged grief occurred when the individual lost a spouse, loved one unexpectedly, or spent time with the deceased everyday during their last week alive.
What are the two main dimensions in the dual process model of coping with bereavement?
Loss-oriented stressors
loss-oriented stressors
focus on the deceased individual and can include grief work and both positive and negative reappraisal of the loss
restoration-oriented stressors
involve the secondary stressors that emerge as indirect outcomes of bereavement
